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AP Biology Mendel Genetics Flashcards

7760368462	Character	A heritable feature that varies among individuals	0
7760368463	Trait	Each variant for a character	1
7760368464	True-breeding	Over many generations, it had produced only the same variety as the parent	2
7760368465	Hybridization	Mating of two true-breeding parents	3
7760368466	Allele	Alternative versions of a gene	4
7760368467	Dominant Allele	Determine the organisms appearance-Capital letter	5
7760368468	Recessive allele	No noticeable effect of the organisms appearance-aa	6
7760368469	Law of Segregation	States that the two alleles for a heritable character separate from each other during gamete formation and end up in different gametes	7
7760368470	Homozygous	Pair of identical alleles for a character	8
7760368471	Heterozygous	Two different alleles for a gene	9
7760368472	Phenotype	An organisms appearance or observable traits	10
7760368473	Genotype	An organisms genetic makeup	11
7760368474	Testcross	Breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a recessive homozygote	12
7760368475	Monohybrids	Parents were heterozygous for the one particular character being followed in the cross	13
7760368476	Monohybrid Cross	Cross of two heterozygotes(Rr)	14
7760368477	Dihybrid	Individuals heterozygous for the two characters being followed in the cross(YyRr)	15
7760368478	Law of Independent Assortment	States that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation	16
7760368479	Multiplication Rule	States that to determine the probability, we multiple the probability of one event by the probability of the other event	17
7760368480	Addition Rule	States that the probability that any one of two or more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual probabilities	18
7760368481	Complete dominance	The offspring always looked like one of the two parental variety because one allele in the pair showed __________	19
7760368482	Incomplete dominance	Three or more potential varieties from crossing tow parents	20
7760368483	Co-dominance	Two alleles each affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways	21
7760368486	Polygenic Inheritance	An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character	22
7760368487	Carrier	Heterozygous person can transmit the recessive allele to their offspring without themselves having the trait	23

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AP Biology Chapter 17 Flashcards

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5761065915	One Gene-One Polypeptide Hypothesis	States that the function of a gene is to dictate the production of a specific enzyme	0
5761065916	Transcription	-synthesis of RNA under direction of DNA -DNA serves as template for assembling complementary RNA molecule -resulting RNA molecule faithful transcript of gene's protein-building instructions -occurs in nucleus	1
5761065917	Messenger RNA (mRNA)	RNA molecule that carries genetic message from DNA to protein synthesizing machinery of cell	2
5761065918	Translation	-synthesis of polypeptide -occurs under direction of mRNA -change in language-cell must translate base sequence of mRnA molecule into amino acid sequence of polypeptide -occurs in cytoplasm	3
5761065919	Ribosomes	-sites of translation -complex particles that facilitate orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains	4
5761065920	Primary Transcript	initial RNA transcript from any gene, including those coding for RNA that is not translated into protein	5
5761065921	Triplet Code	genetic instructions for polypeptide chain written in DNA as series of non-overlapping, 3 nucleotide words	6
5761065922	Template Strand	DNA strand that provides pattern/template for sequence of nucleotides in RNA transcript	7
5761065923	Codons	mRNA base triplets written 5'-3' direction	8
5761065924	Reading Frame	grapings w/ symbols w/ message that needs to be translated to written language	9
5761065925	RNA Polymerase	-pries 2 strands of DNA apart -joins RNA nucleotides as they base pair along DNA template -assemble polynucleotides 5' -> 3' -can start chain from scratch-no primer needed	10
5761065926	Promoter	DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription	11
5761065927	Terminator	sequence that signals end of transcription in bacteria	12
5761065928	Transcription Unit	stretch of DNA transcribed into RNA molecule	13
5761065929	Transcription Factors	proteins that mediate binding of RNA polymerase and initiation of transcription	14
5761065930	Transcription Initiation Complex	complex of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to promoter	15
5761065931	TATA Box	crucial promoter DNA sequence	16
5761065932	RNA Processing	enzymes in eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA in specific ways before genetic messages dispatched to cytoplasm	17
5761065933	5' Cap	modified form of guanine added onto 5' end after transcription 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm	18
5761065934	poly-A Tail	-50-250 more A nucleotides added to 3' end by enzyme 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm	19
5761065935	RNA splicing	removal of large portions of RNA molecule initially synthesized	20
5761065936	Introns	noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding regions	21
5761065937	Exons	nucleotide regions that are expressed, usually translated into amino acid sequences	22
5761065938	Spliceosome	interacts w/ certain sites along introns, releasing intron and joining together 2 exons that flanked intron	23
5761065939	Ribozymes	RNA molecules that function as enzymes, can b/c: 1. RNA single stranded, region of RNA molecule may base-pair w/ complementary region elsewhere in same molecule-gives molecule particular 3D structure-essential to catalytic function of ribozymes, just like in enzymatic proteins 2. some RNA bases have functional groups that may participate in catalysis 3. ability of RNA to hydrogen bond w/ other nucleic acid molecules-adds specificity to catalytic activity	24
5761065940	Alternative RNA Splicing	many genes can give rise to 2+ polypeptides, depending on which segments are treated as exons during RNA processing -# different protein products > # genes	25
5761065941	Domains	functional regions part of protein architecture	26
5761065942	Transfer RNA (tRNA)	transfer amino acids from cytoplasmic pool of AA to ribosome	27
5761065943	Anticodon	nucleotide triplet that base pairs of complementary codon of mRNA	28
5761065944	Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases	-able to bind to different tRNAs that code for specific amino acid -catalyzes covalent attachment to tRNA -> aminoacyl tRNA released from enzyme -available to deliver AA to growing polypeptide chain of ribosome	29
5761065945	Wobble	flexible base pairing at codon position	30
5761065946	Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)	made in nucleolus, make up ribosomal subunits	31
5761065947	P Site (peptidyl-tRNA site)	holds tRNA carrying growing polypeptide chain	32
5761065948	A Site (aminoacyl-tRNA site)	holds tRNA carrying next AA to be added in chain	33
5761065949	E Site (exit site)	where discharged tRNAs leave ribosome	34
5761065950	Release Factor	protein that binds to stop codon @ A site	35
5761065951	Polyribosomes	-strings of ribosomes trailing along mRNA -enables cells to make many copies of polypeptide quickly	36
5761065952	Signal Peptide	-targets protein to ER -marks if polypeptide of proteins destined for endomembrane system or for secretion	37
5761065953	Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)	brings ribosome to receptor protein into ER membrane	38
5761065954	Signal Mechanism for Targeting Proteins to ER	1. polypeptide synthesis begins on free ribosome in cytosol 2. SRP binds to signal peptide, halting synthesis momentarily 3. SRP binds to receptor proteins in ER membrane (receptor is part of protein complex w/ membrane and signal cleaving enzyme) 4. SRP leaves, and polypeptide synthesis resumes w/ simultaneous translocation across membrane (signal peptide stays attached to translocation complex) 5. signal cleaving enzyme cuts off signal peptide 6. rest of complexed polypeptide leaves ribosome and folds into final conformation	39
5761065955	Mutations	-change into genetic information of cell -responsible for huge diversity of genes found along organisms	40
5761065956	Point Mutations	-chemical changes in a single base pair of a gene -if occurs in a gamete, can be transmitted to offspring and future generations	41
5761065957	Base Pair Substitutions	replacement of one nucleotide and its partner w/ another pair of nucleotides	42
5761065958	Missense Mutations	-change one amino acid to another -new amino acid may have properties similar to replaced amino acid, or may be in region where exact sequence of amino acids not essential to proteins functions	43
5761065959	Nonsense Mutation	-change codon for amino acid into stop codon -causes translation to be terminated prematurely -resulting polypeptide shorter than polypeptide encoded by normal gene	44
5761065960	Insertions	additions of nucleotide pairs in gene	45
5761065961	Deletion	losses of nucleotide pairs in gene	46
5761065962	Frameshift Mutations	-# nucleotides inserted/deleted NOT multiple of 3 -may alter reading frame of genetic message	47
5761065963	Mutagen	physical and chemical agents that interact w/ DNA that cause mutations	48

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AP Biology: Membranes & Transport OLD Flashcards

Covers general terms for cellular transport for AP Biology.

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5433433864	Selectively Permeable	a property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot	0
5433433865	Phospholipid Bilayer	double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes	1
5433433870	Passive Transport	transport that does not require the cell to expend energy (high to low concentration)	2
5433433871	Active Transport	energy-requiring process where a substance moves against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration)	3
5433433872	Diffusion	net movement of a substance down a concentration gradient (high to low)	4
5433433873	Facilitated Diffusion	diffusion of solutes across a membrane, with the help of transport proteins, does not require energy	5
5433433874	Osmosis	diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane	6
5433433875	Hypertonic	solute concentration is greater than inside the cell, cell loses water; plant cells plasmolyze, animal cells crenate	7
5433433876	Hypotonic	solute concentrations in less than inside the cell, cell gains water; animal cells lyse, plant cells have ideal turgor pressure	8
5433433877	Isotonic	solute concentrations are the same on both sides of the membrane, cell does not gain or lose water; ideal condition for animal cells	9
5433433878	Sodium-Potassium Pump	actively pumps Na+ ions out and K+ ions in, 3 Na leave for every 2 K that enter	10
5433433881	Exocytosis	exporting macromolecules by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane	11
5433433882	Endocytosis	importing macromolecules by forming vesicles derived from plasma membrane	12
5433433891	Concentration Gradient	a difference in concentration across a distance	13
5433433898	cholesterol	A large, ring shaped lipid found in cell membranes. Its presence helps to maintain flexibility and fluidity in the membrane.	14
8661261365	polar	molecule with partial charges; mixes with water	15
8661264138	nonpolar	molecule without partial charges; does not mix with water	16
8661266864	solute	something dissolved in a solution	17
8661269941	solvent	dissolving agent of a solution; in biological systems usually water	18
8661275459	plasma membrane	membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition	19
8661285047	transport	an exchange of molecules (and their kinetic energy) across the boundary between adjacent layers of a fluid or across cell membranes.	20
8661296538	phospholipid bilayer	A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes.	21
8661303985	phospholipid	a lipid with a polar head and nonpolar tails that comprises the majority of cellular membranes	22
8661312346	hydrophobic	"water-hating" nonpolar regions of molecules that are excluded by polar and charged regions of molecules	23
8661352956	hydrophillic	"water-loving" polar/charged regions of molecules that exclusively associate with polar/charged regions of molecules	24

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AP Biology: Chapter 6 Cell Structures Flashcards

Vocabulary words from the AP Edition of Campbell Biology, Chapter 6.

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7599594083	organelles	membrane-enclosed structures within a eukaryotic cell	0
7599594084	cytosol	a jellylike substance where organelles and other components are found	1
7599594085	eukaryotic cell	Cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles	2
7599594086	prokaryotic cell	Cell with no nucleus nor membrane bound organelles	3
7599594087	nucleoid region	a non-membrane-enclosed region of the cell where prokaryotic DNA is found	4
7599594088	cytoplasm	the region in a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus; it contains the cell structures and oganelles	5
7599594089	plasma membrane	The selective barrier that surrounds a cell; it controls what enters and leaves the cell	6
7599594090	nucleus	chromosome-containing part of a eukaryotic cell	7
7599594091	nuclear envelope	encloses the nucleus to separate its contents from the cytoplasm	8
7599594092	nuclear lamina	a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope, lines the nuclear side of the nuclear envelope	9
7599594093	chromosomes	tightly coiled structures that carry the genetic information (can be seen during nuclear division)	10
7599594094	chromatin	loosly coiled genetic material that makes up chromosomes, a complex of proteins and DNA	11
7599594095	nucleolus	located in the nucleus, makes, synthesizes, and partially assembles ribosomes	12
7599594096	ribosomes	made of ribosomal RNA and protein, synthesize proteins	13
7599594097	endomembrane system	membranes that divide the cell into organelles such as the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, and the cell membrane.	14
7599594098	endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	accounts for more than half of total membrane in many eukaryotic cells, continuous with the nuclear envelope	15
7599594099	smooth ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum free of ribosomes, synthesize lipids, detoxifies the cell, and regulates calcium levels	16
7599594100	rough ER	portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, produce and transport membrane and secretory proteins	17
7599594101	glycoproteins	proteins with covalently-bonded carbohydrates that play a role in cell to cell interaction	18
7599594102	transport vesicles	vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another	19
7599594103	Golgi apparatus	stack of membranes that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum	20
7599594104	lysosome	membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes, which the cell uses to digest unwanted materials	21
7599594105	phagocytosis	the process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle	22
7599594106	autophagy	lysosomes break down damaged organelles	23
7599594107	food vacuoles	formed by phagocytosis, pinches off from plasma membrane and encloses a food particle	24
7599594108	contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules in the cell	25
7599594109	central vacuole	the largest organelle in a plant cell. It is surrounded by the tonoplast and functions to hold materials and wastes. It also functions to maintain the proper pressure within plant cells	26
7599594110	mitochondria	chemically convert chemical (food) energy into usable ATP energy through cellular respiration	27
7599594111	chloroplasts	contain chlorophyll which help absorb solar energy in order to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars during photosynthesis	28
7599594112	cristae	infoldings in the inner membrane of the mitochondria	29
7599594113	mitochondrial matrix	compartment of the mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner membrane, contains enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle	30
7599594114	plastids	manufacture and store important chemical compounds used by the cell such as pigments, oils, and starches	31
7599594115	thylakoids	flattened and interconnected sacs found in chloroplasts. The light dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs on the membranes of these sacs	32
7599594116	granum	stacks of thylakoids	33
7599594117	stroma	fluid outside the thylakoids, contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. The light independent stage of photosynthesis occurs in this area	34
7599594118	cytoskeleton	a network of fibers bracing the cytoplasm	35
7599594119	microtubules	hollow rods of protein, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell	36
7599594120	centrosome	a region located near the nucleus where micro-tubules grow from; important in cell division	37
7599594121	centrioles	cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division	38
7599594122	flagella	a long tail-like structure that aids in cell movement	39
7599594123	cilia	a short hair-like structures that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell, utilizes a back-and-forth motion	40
7599594124	microfilaments	the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, are used to give shape to the cell and support all of its internal parts	41
7599594125	actin	a globular protein that makes up microfilaments	42
7599594126	pseudopodia	cellular extensions that enable a cell to crawl along a surface	43
7599594127	cytoplasmic streaming	the circular flow of cytoplasm within cells	44
7599594128	intermediate filaments	diverse class of cytoskeletal elements that bear tension like microfilaments	45
7599594129	cell wall	extracellular structure specific to plant cells, protects the cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive water uptake	46
7599594130	primary cell wall	a relatively thin and flexible layer in plant cells, first secreted by a young cell	47
7599594131	middle lamella	a thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells that glues them together with pectin	48
7599594132	secondary cell wall	a strong and durable matrix in plant cells, often deposited in several laminated layers for cell protection and support	49
7599594133	extracellular matrix	where animal tissue cells are embedded, consists of protein and polysaccharides	50
7599594134	collagen	most common glycoprotein in the ECM, forms strong fibers outside the cells	51
7599594135	plasmodesmata	channels that perforate cell walls, allow for connections between cells in plants	52
7599594136	tight junctions	intercellular junction in animal tissues where plasma membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against each other, bound by specific proteins	53
7599594137	desmosomes	intercellular junction in animal tissues that function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets	54
7599594138	gap junctions	intercellular junction in animal tissues that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell, similar to plasmodesmata in plants	55

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Campbell AP Biology--CHAPTER 11 Flashcards

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8039552524	signal transduction pathway	a series of steps linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response	0
8039552526	cell junctions	allows molecules to pass readily between adjacent cells	1
8039552527	cell-cell recognition	two cells in an animal may communicate by interaction between molecules protruding from their surfaces	2
8039552528	paracrine signaling	(local) a secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator	3
8039552529	synaptic signaling	(local) a nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell	4
8039552530	hormonal signaling	specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often the blood	5
8039552531	hormones	in multicellular organisms, one of many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells in other parts of the body to change their functioning	6
8039552532	reception		7
8039552533	transduction		8
8039552534	response		9
8039552535	ligand	a signal molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one	10
8039552536	g protein-coupled receptor	a signal receptor protein in the plasma membrane that responds to the binding of a signaling molecule by activating a G protein	11
8039552538	g protein	a GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell	12
8039552539	receptor tyrosine kinases	a receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the intracellular part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein	13
8039552543	ligand-gated ion channel		14
8039552544	intracellular receptor		15
8039552545	protein kinase	an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein	16
8039552546	protein phosphatases	an enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase	17
8039552547	phosphorylation cascade		18
8039552548	second messengers	a small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein	19
8039552549	cyclic amp	cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells; also a regulator of some bacterial operons	20
8039552550	adenylyl cyclase	an enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to a signal	21
8039552558	the specificity of cell signaling		22
8039552560	apoptosis	a program of controlled cell suicide, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die	23

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AP Biology Embryonic Development and Cell differentiation, AP Biology Cell cycle and Meiosis, Unit 8 AP Biology Cell signaling Flashcards

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9361684667	cleavage	the division in animal cell cytoplasm caused by the pinching in of the cell membrane	0
9361684668	zona pellucida	A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.	1
9361684669	trophoblast	the outer part of the blastocyst from which the amniotic sac, placenta, and umbilical cord develop	2
9361684670	embryoblast	a group of cells at one end of the blastocyst that develops into the embryo	3
9361684671	blastocyst or blastula	stage of early development in mammals that consists of a hollow ball of cells	4
9361684672	blastocoel	the fluid-filled cavity inside a blastula or blastocyst	5
9361684673	morula	ball of cells formed from divisions of a zygote	6
9361684674	fertilization	Process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell	7
9361684675	implantation	attachment of a fertilized egg to the endometrium	8
9361684676	gastrulation	transforms the blastula into a multilayered embryo	9
9361684677	germ layers	Three main layers that form the various tissues and organs of an animal body. ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm	10
9361684678	ectoderm	the outer germ layer that develops into skin and nervous tissue	11
9361684679	endoderm	the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems	12
9361684680	mesoderm	in an embryo, the middle layer of cells that gives rise to muscles, blood, and various systems	13
9361684681	growth factors	proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide	14
9361684682	cell differentiation	the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.	15
9361684683	totipotent stem cells	Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any cell. These cells can create a new embryo.	16
9361684684	pleuripotent stem cells	stem cells that can form cells that typically come from a specific cell line. ie. mesodermal tissue	17
9361684685	multipotent stem cells	are found within tissues and form the cells of that tissue.	18
9361684686	Cell Cycle	the steps a cell takes from one division to the next	19
9361684687	Interphase	the part of the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing; made up of G1, S, G2	20
9361684688	Cell Division	the part of the cell cycle when the cell is dividing; made of mitosis and cytokinesis	21
9361684689	G1	the first phase of interphase when the cell is growing and doing its' cell thing (function)	22
9361684690	S	the second phase of interphase when the cell is synthesizing (making) a copy of its' DNA	23
9361684691	G2	the third phase of interphase when the cell is preparing to divide by growing 2x its' original size and copying the organelles	24
9361684692	Mitosis	a type of cell division that creates 2 identical diploid body cells; also used in asexual organisms to reproduce; PMAT	25
9361684693	Cytokinesis	the division of cytoplasm	26
9361684694	Prophase	the first phase of mitosis where 1. The chromosomes appear 2. The spindle fibers appear 3. The nuclear membrane disappears 4. The nucleolus disappears	27
9361684695	Metaphase	the second phase of mitosis where the sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell	28
9361684696	Anaphase	the third phase of mitosis where the sister chromatids separate	29
9361684697	Telophase	the fourth phase of mitosis where 1. Two nuclear envelopes form around both sets of chromosomes 2. Nucleolus appears in both nuclei 3. Chromosomes unravel 4. Spindle fiber disappears	30
9361684698	Sister Chromatids	identical copied chromosomes	31
9361684699	Centromere	holds the sister chromatids together	32
9361684700	Chromatin	stringy DNA; DNA that is unraveled	33
9361684701	Diploid	a cell that has 2 sets of chromosomes; body cells are diploid and have 46 chromosomes	34
9361684702	Haploid	a cell that has 1 set of chromosomes; sex cells are haploid and have 23 chromosomes	35
9361684703	Somatic Cells	body cells	36
9361684704	Gametes	sex cells; sperm and egg	37
9361684705	Homologous Chromosomes	chromosome pairs that are the same shape, size and carry the same types of genes but not identical because one copy is from mom and one from dad	38
9361684706	Fertilization	the joining of egg and sperm	39
9361684707	Zygote	the new diploid cell formed after fertilization	40
9361684708	Meiosis	type of cell division that creates 4 different haploid sex cells; PI, MI, AI, TI, PII, MII, AII, TII	41
9361684709	Tetrad	a pair of homologous chromosomes; 4 sister chromatids	42
9361684710	Crossing Over	while in tetrads, pieces of DNA break off and trade places	43
9361684711	Prophase I	the first part of meiosis where 1. chromosomes become visible 2. Spindle fiber form 3. Nuclear membrane disappears 4. Nucleolus disappears 5. Tetrads form and crossing over occurs	44
9361684712	Metaphase I	the second part of meiosis where the tetrads line up in the middle of the cell	45
9361684713	Anaphase I	the third part of meiosis where the tetrads are split apart	46
9361684714	Telophase I and Cytokinesis	the fourth part of meiosis where 1. Chromosomes unravel 2. The nuclear envelope reforms around both sets of chromosomes 3. Nucleolus appears 4. Spindle fibers disappear 5. 2 different haploid cells (but still with duplicated chromosomes) are formed	47
9361684715	Prophase II	the fifth part of meiosis where in both cells 1. The chromosomes appear 2. Spindle fibers appear 3. Nuclear membrane disappears 4. Nucleolus disappears	48
9361684716	Metaphase II	the sixth part of meiosis where the sister chromatids line up in the middle in both cells	49
9361684717	Anaphase II	the seventh part of meiosis where the sister chromatids are pulled apart in both cells	50
9361684718	Telophase II and Cytokinesis	the last part of meiosis where in all 4 cells 1. The chromosomes unravel 2. The nuclear membrane appears around the 4 different sets of chromosomes 3. Nucleolus reappears 4. Spindle fibers disappear 5. 4 different haploid cells are formed	51
9361684719	Short Distance Signaling	Messenger molecules are involved in local signaling that travel only short distances	52
9361684720	Synaptic Signaling	A nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a gap between cells, stimulating the target cell	53
9361684721	Endocrine Signaling	cells secrete hormones, which travel via the circulatory system to other parts of the body, where they reach target cells	54
9361684722	Reception	The target cell's detection of a signaling molecule coming from outside the cell; involves the binding of the signaling molecule to a receptor protein	55
9361684723	Transduction	A step or series of steps that converts the signal to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response	56
9361684724	Signal Transduction Pathway	A sequence of changes in a series of different molecules during transduction	57
9361684725	Response	The transduced signal triggers a specific change in cellular activity	58
9361684726	Ligand	A molecule that specifically binds to a receptor based on complementary shape and causes a change in shape of the receptor	59
9361684727	Examples of Transmembrane Receptors	G protein-coupled receptors and ligand-gated ion channels	60
9361684728	Ligand-gated Ion Channel	A membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a "gate" for ions when the receptor assumes a certain shape	61
9361684729	Testosterone	A steroid hormone that passes through the cell membrane and binds to a receptor within the cytoplasm and turns on specific genes that control male sex characteristics	62
9361684730	Transcription Factor	Special proteins that control which genes are turned on (transcribed into mRNA) in a particular cell at a particular time	63
9361684731	Protein Kinases	Enzymes involved in phosphorylation cascades that transfer phosphate groups from ATP to other proteins; addition of phosphates activates the protein	64
9361684732	Second Messengers	Small, nonprotein water-soluble molecules or ions involved in a signaling pathway; examples include cAMP and calcium ions	65
9361684733	cAMP	Cyclic AMP; a second messenger that is activated by adenylyl cyclase	66
9361684734	Diabetes	The ligand insulin is not produced (Type 1) or the insulin receptor does not bind to the ligand (Type 2)	67
9361684735	Acetylcholine	Neurotransmitter that produces an impulse in a muscle cell	68
9361684736	Epinephrine	An example of a chemical messenger (ligand) that binds to a transmembrane receptor (GPCR) and signals the breakdown of glycogen into glucose	69
9361684737	direct contact signaling	Direct signaling can occur by transferring signaling molecules across gap junctions or plasmodesmata between neighboring cells	70
9361684738	neurotransmitter	Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.	71
9361684739	glycogen	An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	72
9361684740	glucagon	A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.	73
9361684741	insulin	A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues	74
9361684742	amplification	The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.	75
9361695012	zygote	fertilized egg	76

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AP Biology Chapter 22 Flashcards

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4924437486	Species	The ability to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring.	0
4924437487	Reproductive Isolation	Pre-zygotic: before zygote Post-zygotic: after zygote	1
4924437489	Temporal Isolation	Pre-zygotic. Differences in timing of breeding cycles prevent reproduction.	2
4924437490	Behavioral Isolation	Pre-zygotic. Differences in courtship behaviors prevent mating from taking place.	3
4924437491	Habitat Isolation	Pre-zygotic. Two species who occupy different habitats within the same area may not encounter each other, and therefore do not reproduce.	4
4924437492	Mechanical Isolation	Pre-zygotic. Morphological differences prevent reproductive success.	5
4924437493	Gamete Isolation	Pre-zygotic. Sperm of one egg may not be able to fertilize the egg of another species.	6
4924437494	Reduced Hybrid Fertility	Post-zygotic. Chromosome incompatibility make offspring of two different species infertile.	7
4924437495	Reduced Hybrid Viability	Post-zygotic. In some species a hybrid zygote will form, but will not complete development or is born frail.	8
4924437496	Hybrid Breakdown	Post-zygotic. Original hybrids are robust and vigorous, however, offspring of these hybrids are small and/or sterile.	9
4924437497	Allopatric Speciation	The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.	10
4924437498	Sympatric Speciation	The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area.	11
4924437499	Adaptive Radiation	Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles in their communities (availability of habitats increases rates of speciation).	12
4924437500	Polyploidy	Cells fail to divide and tissue becomes tetraploid. Tetraploid tissue makes diploid gametes continuing polyploidy (creates an extra set(s) of homologous chromosomes).	13
4924437501	Gradualism	The hypothesis that evolution proceeds chiefly by the accumulation of gradual changes.	14
4924437502	Punctuated Equilibrium	The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.	15
4924437503	Speciation	The process by which one species splits into two or more species.	16
4924437505	Hybrid Zone	A region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry.	17
4924437506	Morphological Species Concept	Characterizes a species by body shape and other structural features.	18
4924437507	Ecological Species Concept	Characterizes a species by its ecological niche, the sum of how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of its environment.	19
4924437508	Phylogenetic Species Concept	Characterizes a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor, forming one branch on the tree of life.	20
4926870843	Reinforcement	Strengthening reproductive barrier	21
4926871410	Fusion	Wearing of reproductive Barrier	22
4926872153	Stability	Continued production of hybrid individual	23

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AP Biology Chapter 53 Flashcards

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7899923487	Population	A group of individuals in a species living in the same general area -same resources -similar env'tal factors -interact/breed with each other	0
7899923488	Density	# individuals per unit area or volume	1
7899923489	Dispersion	Pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population	2
7899923490	Mark-recapture method	Mark animals with tag or other system so they are recognized when captured again; a sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations N = (sn)/x Estimated population size = (# marked individuals in first sample total # in second sample) / # marked in second sample	3
7899923491	Immigration	The influx of new individuals from other areas	4
7899923492	Emigration	Movement of individuals out of a population and into other locations	5
7899923493	Patterns of dispersion	Clumped: most common; grouped where food is abundant or in relation to mating behavior (patches) Uniform: same amount of spacing between individuals Random: no pattern/arrangement	6
7899923494	Territoriality	The defense of a bounded physical space against other individuals	7
7899923495	Demography	The study of the vital statistics of populations and how they change over time -Birth/death rates	8
7899923496	Life tables	Age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population	9
7899923497	Cohort	A group of individuals of the same age, from birth until all are dead	10
7899923498	Survivorship curve	A plot of the proportion/numbers in a cohort that are still alive at certain ages Ideal chart is shown in image	11
7899923499	Reproductive table	Age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population -measuring reproductive output from birth to death -high reproductive rates will not lead to rapid pop. growth unless conditions are near ideal for the growth/survival of offspring	12
7899923500	Equations to know	dN/dt = bN- dN (dN= change in pop size, dt = time, bN = per capita birth rate, dN= per capita death rate) *used for a discrete/fixed time interval r = b - m (r= per capita rate of increase)	13
7899923501	Zero population growth (ZPG)	Occurs when birth and death rates are equal (r=0)	14
7899923502	Exponential population growth	Population increase under ideal conditions (access to abundant food/free to reproduce at physiological capacity) dN/dt = rmax*N (rmax = maximum rate of increase for the species) J-shaped growth curve	15
7899923503	Carrying capacity, K	The maximum population size that a particular env't can sustain -limiting factors to growth can be: energy, shelter, predators, nutrient availability, water	16
7899923504	Logistic population growth	The per capita rate of increase approaches 0 as the carrying capacity is reached As N increases, r decreases dN/dt = rmaxN((K-N)/K) When N is small compared to K, (K-N)/K is close to 1, and the per capita rate of increase (r) approaches its max When N is large and resources are limiting, (K-N)/K is close to 0 and r is small N=k; population stops growing *population growth rate is highest at 1/2K	17
7899923505	Allee effect	Individuals may have a more difficult time reproducing if the population size is too small	18
7899923506	Life history	Made up of traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival. 1) Age when reproduction begins (first reproduction or maturity) 2) How often the organism reproduces 3) Number of offspring produced per reproductive episode	19
7899923507	Semelparity	Condition of having a single reproductive effort in a lifetime (large number of offspring produced at once)	20
7899923508	Iteroparity	Reproduction in which adults produce offspring over many years; repeated reproduction.	21
7899923509	What factors contribute to the evolution of semelparity vs. iteroparity?	The survival rate of the offspring The likelihood that the adult will survive to reproduce again	22
7899923510	K-selection	Density-dependent selection -Selection for traits that are sensitive to population density are favored at high densities Carrying capacity almost reached; small fluctuations	23
7899923511	r-selection	Selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in low density env'ts (density independent) Carrying capacity not reached; large bust/boom	24
7899923512	Density independent	A birth or death rate that does not change with population density	25
7899923513	Density dependent	A death rate that rises/birth rate that falls when population density increases *At equilibrium density (Q) birth and death rates are equal	26
7899923514	Mechanisms of density-dependent regulation	Competition for resources Predation Toxic wastes Intrinsic factors Territoriality Disease	27
7899923515	Population dynamics	Long-term data for populations that show fluctuation in size (from year to year/place to place) -Influenced by many factors and affect other species	28
7899923516	Metapopulation	When a number of local populations are linked	29
7899923517	Demographic transition	The movement between high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates -Tends to accompany industrialization/improved living conditions	30
7899923518	Age structure	The relative number of individuals of each age in the population	31
7899923519	Ecological footprint	The amount of biologically productive land and water needed to support a person or population.	32

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AP Biology Chapter 16: DNA and Replication Flashcards

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8310049872	DNA replication	The process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis	0
8310049873	transformation	(1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell. When the external DNA is from a member of a different species, transformation results in horizontal gene transfer	1
8310049874	bacteriophage	A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage	2
8310049875	virus	An infectious particle incapable of replicating outside of a cell, consisting of an RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) and, for some viruses, a membranous envelope	3
8310049877	double helix	The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.	4
8310049878	antiparallel	Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' S 3' directions)	5
8310049879	3.4 nm and 10 nucleotides	length between 2 nucleotides and # of nucleotides per turn	6
8310049880	2 hydrogen bonds	adenine forms	7
8310049881	3 hydrogen bonds	guanine forms	8
8310049882	2 nm	diameter of the double helix	9
8310049883	semiconservative model	Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the parental molecule, and one newly made strand	10
8310049884	conservative model	the two parental strands somehow come back together after the process	11
8310049885	dispersive model	all four strands of DNA following replication have a mixture of old and new DNA	12
8310049886	origin of replication	Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides	13
8310049887	replication fork	A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are being synthesized.	14
8310049888	helicase	An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at replication forks, separating the two strands and making them available as template strands.	15
8310049889	single-strand binding protein	A protein that binds to the unpaired DNA strands during DNA replication, stabilizing them and holding them apart while they serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA	16
8310049890	topoisomerase	A protein that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. During DNA replication, ________ helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork	17
8310049891	primer	A short stretch of RNA with a free 3' end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand and elongated with DNA nucleotides during DNA replication	18
8310049892	primase	An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make a primer during DNA replication, using the parental DNA strand as a template	19
8310049893	DNA polymerase	An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA (for example, at a replication fork) by the addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing chain. There are several different ________; ________ III and _______ I play major roles in DNA replication in E. coli.	20
8310049895	nucleoside triphosphate	a nucleoside (a sugar and base) with three phosphate groups. where each added nucleotide comes from	21
8310049896	leading strand	The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5' S 3' direction	22
8310049897	lagging strand	A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' S 3' direction away from the replication fork	23
8310049898	okazaki fragment	A short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication. Many such segments are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA. about 1000-2000 nucleotides in bacteria and 100-200 in eukaryotes	24
8310049899	sliding clamp	DNA pol III is closely associated with this. it encircles the newly synthesized double helix like a doughnut. it moves DNA pol III along the DNA template strand	25
8310049900	overview of lagging strand		26
8310049901	DNA polymerase III	adds nucleotides to the primer in the 3' direction	27
8310049902	DNA polymerase I	in the lagging strand, replaces RNA primer nucleotides with DNA nuceleotides	28
8310049903	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5' end of another DNA fragment (such as a growing DNA chain)	29
8310049905	1/10^10 and 1/10^5	completed error rate and error rate	30
8310049906	mismatch repair	The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides	31
8310049907	nuclease	An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides	32
8310049908	nucleotide excision repair	A repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment (usually DNA pol I) of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide	33
8310049909	thymine dimers	the covalent linking of thymine bases that are adjacent on a DNA strand. causes the DNA to buckle and interfere with DNA replication	34
8310049910	telomeres	The tandemly repetitive DNA at the end of a eukaryotic chromosome's DNA molecule. ________ protect the organism's genes from being eroded during successive rounds of replication. repeating TTAGGG sequence between 100 and 1000 times	35
8310049911	telomerase	An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells	36
8310049912	negative	charge of the backbone	37
8310049913	histones	responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin	38
8310049914	H2A, H2B, H3, H4	four common types of histone	39
8310049915	nucleosome	the "bead" on the string. the basic unit of DNA packing. 10 nm in length	40
8310049916	linker DNA	the DNA between nucleosomes	41
8310049923	nucleoid	A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated	42
8310049924	chromatin	The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope	43
8310049925	heterochromatin	Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed	44
8310049926	euchromatin	The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription	45
8310049927	depurination	type of DNA damage in which a purine base is removed	46
8310049928	deamination	type of DNA damage in which an amine group is removed from a molecule	47
8310049931	phosphodiester bond	the bond between two nucleotides	48
8310049932	major groove	occurs where the backbones of DNA are far apart	49
8310350968	minor groove	occurs where the backbones of DNA are closer together	50

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AP Biology Power Words Flashcards

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9616846450	Compare	Point out similarities, examine 2 or more objects and consider the likenesses.	0
9616915031	Compare	If used without Contrast it can mean both similarities and differences.	1
9616922478	Contrast	Point out differences; to examine 2 or more objects and consider the differences	2
9616934188	Identify	Name, list, and give and example	3
9616939357	Explain	Tell how to do, give the meaning of, or why, give reasons for	4
9616951192	Describe	To give a picture of or characteristics of something in words	5
9616966769	Discuss	To give information about something in writing from various points of view	6
9616976605	Define	Give a meaning for a word or phrase	7
9616982381	Effect	A result or a consequence that can be positive or negative	8
9616988079	Effect	commonly used as a noun	9
9616994147	Affect	commonly used as a verb with regards to a result or consequence	10
9617169617	Analyze	to study something closely and carefully, especially information; to learn the relationship of the parts	11
9617207289	Summarize	tell the main idea; tell the beginning, middle, and end	12
9617213450	Support	Back it up or prove your answer with details	13
9617220006	Provide	to make available for use or consideration to supply something that is useful or necessary	14
9617237288	Evaluate	To judge the condition of something in a careful and thoughtful way (to judge the good and the bad)	15
9617247605	Differentiate	to see or state the differences between two or more things	16
9617257718	Predict	to say that something will or might happen in the future	17
9617253231	Distinguish	means the same thing as differentiate	18
9617265260	Perform	to carry out, accomplish, or complete a task or action	19
9617275422	Justify	to give good reason for; defend; prove or show something to be right or reasonable	20
9617282919	Claim	a statement that is open to challenge an answer to a question	21
9617290172	Evidence	available body of facts or information that indicates whether the statement is true or valid	22
9617298134	Pose	to present a problem; ask or suggest a question for	23
9617304396	Interpret	to explain or provide meaning of something; understand something in a clear or precise way	24
9617316874	Propose	to suggest an idea or plan for consideration or discussion by others	25
9617324003	Indicate	to point out or show; to state briefly; to direct attention to	26

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