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Chapter 25-27 Duncan AP Biology Flashcards

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7770218153protocellsdroplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings, nonliving structures that are believed to have evolved into prokaryotes0
7770218154Oparin and Haldanehypothesized early earth atmosphere composed of ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, water vapor, and methane; thought at high temperatures organic compounds could form -> when earth cooled compounds could be found in water + lightning/UV radiation -> chemical reaction -> proteins1
7770218155Miller and Ureytested earlier scientist hypothesis in experiments that simulated conditions on early Earth in a closed system and produced a variety of amino acids.2
7770218156self-replicating RNAA current leading hypothesis about the first system of inheritance in the earliest life forms involves_____.3
7770218157Ribozymescatalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA4
7770218163Prokaryotesa microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles. Include the bacteria and cyanobacteria. Earliest living organisms5
7770218164AerobicContaining oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that requires oxygen.6
7770218165AnaerobicLacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it7
7770218166EukaryotesUnicellular nonbacterial organisms bounded by a cell membrane and contains cytoplasm. cytoplasm contains organelles.appeared about 2.1 billion years ago.8
7770218167Endosymbiotic hypothesisExplains the origin of eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The theory that mitochondria and plastids, including chloroplasts, originated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. The engulfed cell and its host cell then evolved into a single organism.9
7770218168Multicellular eukaryotesorganisms with many cells and true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. evolved about 1.2 billion years ago.10
7770242288Peptidoglycanpolymer composed modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides (proteins) found in most bacterial cell walls in varied thicknesses11
7770249932Gram-Positivebacteria with simple cell walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan so the violet gram stain does not wash out and it appears purple under the microscope12
7770257802Gram-Negativebacteria with less peptidoglycan and with plasma membranes on both sides of the peptidoglycan so the violet color washes out during staining and it appears pink under the microscope13
7770269711capsulesticky outer layer on many bacteria used to adhere to substrates, other bacteria, or protect from dehydration14
7770279174fimbriaelong hairlike appendages on some bacteria used to adhere to substrates or other bacteria15
7770289873bacterial flagellumStructure that rotates in a circular motion to propel the bacteria.16
7770300681nucloidRegion in the bacteria where the chromosome is located.17
7770304413plasmidsThese are small rings of of independently replicating DNA in bacteria most carry only a few genes.18
7770309656endosporesThese develop around the nucloid when nutrients are sparse. This allows the bacteria to be dormant until nutrients return.19
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AP Biology DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis Flashcards

Review of Big Idea 3A from AP

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7919646763nucleotidesmonomers of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base0
7919646765RNAA type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.1
7919646766base pairingPrinciple that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine2
7919646769RNA polymeraseAn enzyme that links ribonucleotides into a growing RNA chain during transcription, based on complementary binding to nucleotides on a DNA template strand3
7919646771protein synthesisForming proteins using ribosomes (RER) based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA4
7919646772polypeptideA polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.5
7919646773amino acidsBuilding blocks of protein6
7919646774chromosomescontain genetic material and are located in the nucleus7
7919646775mRNARNA that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein; also called messenger RNA.8
7919646776tRNARNA molecules that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being synthesized at the ribosome of the cell9
7919646777rRNARNA molecules that, together with proteins, make up ribosomes10
7919646778adenineA double-ring nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. Pairs with Thymine.11
7919646779thymineA single-ring nitrogenous base found only in DNA. Pairs with Adenine.12
7919646780cytosineA single-ring nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. Pair with guanine13
7919646781guanineA double-ring nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA. Binds with cytosine.14
7919646782uracila nitrogen-containing base found in RNA (but not in DNA) and derived from pyrimidine. Binds with adenine15
7919646783codonA specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid16
7919646784anticodongroup of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon17
7919646785intronA segment of a gene situated between exons that is removed before translation of messenger RNA and does not function in coding for protein synthesis.18
7919646786exonA sequence within a primary transcript that remains in the RNA after RNA processing; also refers to the region of DNA from which this sequence was transcribed19
7919646787promoterA specific nucleotide sequence in the DNA of a gene that binds RNA polymerase, positioning it to start transcribing RNA at the appropriate place.20
7919646790ribosomerRNA and protein molecules that functions in protein synthesis; consists of a large and a small subunit. In eukaryotic cells, is assembled in the nucleolus21
7919646791translationThe synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in a mRNA molecule. There is a change of "language" from nucleotides to amino acids.22
7919646792transcriptionThe synthesis of RNA using a DNA template.23
7919646797gene mutationA change in the sequence of the bases in a gene, which changes the structure of the polypeptide that the gene codes for.24
7919646798chromosomal mutationA change in the chromosome structure, resulting defects in meiosis25
7919646799substitutionA type of point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides.26
7919646800deletiona type of gene mutation in which a nucleotide is deleted27
7919646801insertionA mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotides pairs to a gene.28
7919646805terminatorIn bacteria, a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene and signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule and detach from the DNA.29
7919646806bacteriophageA virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.30
7919646807TATA boxA promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.31
7919646808Central dogma32
7919710164RNA nucleotide33
7919719200RNAiprocess in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules.34
7919830429poly A tailmakes mRNA more stable, prevents its degradation, allows the mRNA molecule to be exported from the nucleus and translated into a protein by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.35
7919860026GTP capused as a recognition signal for ribosomes to bind to the mRNA.36
7919887801mRNA processingAddition of cap and tail to the ends of the transcript & Removal of introns37
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AP Biology Unit 3 Chapter 8 - Energetics Flashcards

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8185508667Metabolismthe totality of an organisms chemical reactions that result from interactions between molecules within the cell0
8185508668metabolic pathwaya sequence of chemical reactions undergone by a compound in a living organism, start with substrate end with product1
8185508669catabolicbreaking a complex molecule down into its simpler parts, releasing energy. ie. cellular respiration2
8185508670anabolicusing energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules. ie. protein synthesis3
8185508672energycapacity to cause change, do work4
8185508673kinetic energyenergy of motion5
8185508674heat(thermal energy)kinetic energy associated with random movement of molecules6
8185508675potential energyenergy of position7
8185508676chemical energypotential energy available for release in a chemical reaction, energy within bonds8
8185508677thermodynamicsstudy of energy transformations9
81855086801st law of thermodynamicsenergy of the universe is constant, cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred or transformed, conservation of energy10
81855086812nd law of thermodynamicsduring every energy transfer, some energy is unusable and often lost, every energy transfer or transformation increases the total entropy of the universe11
8185508682entropydisorder, randomness12
8185508683free energydelta G, energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are constant, related to change in enthalpy(delta H), change in entropy(delta S) and temperature in Kelvin(T). delta G = delta H - T delta S13
8185508684exergonic reactiona reaction with a net release of free energy, negative free energy, spontaneous14
8185508685endergonic reactiona reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings, non-spontaneous, positive free energy15
8185508686coupled reactionsthe use of exergonic processes to drive endergonic ones, the energy given off from the exergonic is absorbed by the endergonic16
8185508687ATPadenosine triphosphate, composed of ribose (5 carbon sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups. Phosphate tail can be broken through hydrolysis to produce energy, ADP, and an inorganic phosphate17
8185508688phosphorylationhow ATP drives endergonic reactions, covalently bonding a phosphate with another molecule, such as as reactant18
8185508689catalysta chemical agent that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction19
8185508690enzymesa catalytic protein, speeds up metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy, very specific, reusable, unchanged by reaction20
8185508691activation energyinitial energy needed to start a chemical reaction, free energy for activating reaction, given off by heat21
8185508692induced fitbrings the chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction, makes the enzyme more effective22
8185508693cooperativityanother type of allosteric activation, binds to one active site but locks ALL active sites open, allowing products to be constantly produced23
8185508694Substratethe REACTANT that an enzyme acts on24
8185508695Enzyme-Substrate Complexenzyme and substrate25
8185508696Active Siteregion on the enzyme where substrate binds26
8185508698Lock and Keyactive site on enzyme fits substrate exactly27
81855087003 kinds of cellular work done by ATPShuttle renewable and nonrenewable ENERGY, provide ENERGY for cellular functions, provide ENERGY for catabolic reactions28
8185508701Ways enzymes lower activation energycan do this by having a favorable environment, straining substrate molecules, orienting substrates correctly29
8185508703cofactorsnon-protein enzyme helpers ex. zinc, iron, copper30
8185508704coenzymesorganic enzyme helpers ex. vitamens31
8185508705Denatureabove a certain temp activity declines, protein unwinds32
8185508708Feedback inhibitionend product of a pathway that continues to produce product (positive) and then turns off (negative)33
8185508709negative feedback inhibitionaccumulation of end product slows the process that produces that amount -stop production34
8185508710positive feedback inhibitionend product speeds up production (less common)35
8185508711Allosteric Regulationcan accelerate or inhibit production and enzyme activity by attaching to another part of the protein. this changes the shape of the active site which inhibits substrates from bonding and producing more products36
8185508712Activatorone of the allosteric regulators, stabilizes and keeps active site open for production, wedges open37
8185508713Inhiibitorone of the allosteric regulators, doesnt allow active site to work or produce, wedges closed38
8185508714Competitive Inhibitorinhibitor that mimics original substrate by blocking the original substrate39
8185508715Noncompetetitive Inhibitorbind to another part of enzyme to change shape and block substrate from producing40
8185508716Things that impact enzymesenvironment, pH, temp, salinity, chemicals that infuse enzyme, increase activity by increasing substrate concentration41
8185508717exergonicwhat reaction is spontaneous (-G)42
8185508718endergonicwhat reaction is not spontaneous (positive G)43
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Chapter 4 AP Biology in Focus Flashcards

Adapted from:
Urry, L., Cain, M., Wasserman, S., Minorsky, P., Jackson, R., & Reece, J. (2014). Campbell biology in focus. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. (ISBN# 0321813804)

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4878824342Central vacuoleA membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development0
4878824344CentrosomeStructure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells, important during cell division; functions as a microtubule-organizing center; has two centrioles.1
4878824345ChloroplastAn organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.2
4878824346ChromatinThe complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome.3
4878824347ChromosomeA cellular structure carrying genetic material, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.4
4878824350Contractile vacuoleA membranous sac that helps move excess water out of certain freshwater protists.5
4878824353CytoplasmThe contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus and bounded by the plasma membrane.6
4878824355CytoskeletonA network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that branch throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling functions.7
4878824360Endomembrane systemThe collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles; includes the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.8
4878824361Endoplasmic reticulumAn extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions.9
4878824365FlagellumA long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion.10
4878824369Golgi apparatusAn organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum and synthesize some products, notably noncellulose carbohydrates.11
4878824374LysosomeA membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of animal cells and some protists.12
4878824375MicrofilamentA cable composed of actin proteins in the cytoplasm of almost every eukaryotic cell, making up part of the cytoskeleton and acting alone or with myosin to cause cell contraction; also known as an actin filament.13
4878824376MicrotubuleA hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.14
4878824379MitochondrionAn organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration; uses oxygen to break down organic molecules and synthesize ATP.15
4878824382Nuclear envelopeThe double membrane in a eukaryotic cell that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.16
4878824384NucleoidA non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated.17
4878824385NucleolusA specialized structure in the nucleus, consisting of chromatin regions containing ribosomal RNA genes along with ribosomal proteins imported from the cytoplasmic site of rRNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly. See also ribosome.18
4878824386NucleusThe chromosome-containing organelle of a eukaryotic cell.19
4878824388PeroxisomeAn organelle containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen (H2) from various substrates to oxygen (O2), producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).20
4878824390Plasma membraneThe membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, regulating the cell's chemical composition.21
4878824397RibosomeA complex of rRNA and protein molecules that functions as a site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.22
4878824398Rough ERThat portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes. A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.23
4878824401Smooth ERThat portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. Detoxifies and builds lipids. Is ER that does not have ribosomes attached. It is a major site of lipid synthesis.24
4878824406Transport vesicleA tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.25
4878847650cell walla rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the algae and higher plants, it consists mainly of cellulose.26
4878856787ciliaHairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion27
4878857380flagellaA long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.28
4962633454endosymbiotic theorya theory that states that certain kinds of prokaryotes began living inside of larger cells and evolved into the organelles of modern-day eukaryotes29
4962641218prokaryotic cellA type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; simple, small30
4962641219eukaryotic cellA type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Larger and much more complex.31
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Ap Biology Chapter 9 Flashcards

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54705457816O₂+C₆H₁₂O₆====>^CO₂+6H₂O+EnergyThe equation of cellular respiration0
5470561782Oxidation is the loss Reduction is the gain (of electrons)O.I.L.R.I.G.1
5470571594GlycolysisDegrades glucose into pyruvate (occurs in cytosol)2
5470576088Kreb's cyclePyruvate into CO₂ (occurs in the Mitochondrial matrix)3
5470586446Electron transport chainElectrons passed to oxygen (occurs in the inner membrane)4
54705970182How much ATP comes from FADH₂5
54705982463How much ATP comes from NADH6
54706011724 but 2 are usedIn glycolysis how much ATP is formed (NET)7
547061639836-38The total amount of ATP8
5470620051Beta oxidationThe metabolic sequence of lipids9
54706243292 pyruvatesHow many Pyruvates come from glycolysis10
54706287552 NADHHow many NADH's come from glycolysis11
5470633493Acetyl CoAThe molecule that pyruvate is changed into12
54706371882FADH₂How many FADH₂'s are created from the Kreb's cycle13
54706446076NADH'sHow many NADH's come from the Kreb's cycle14
54706500611 per cycle (occurs twice)How much ATP comes from the Kreb's cycle15
5470655529NADHThe first molecule to drop off ions in the electron transport chain16
547065953632-34The amount of ATP created in the electron transport chain17
5470664493OxygenThe recipient of the electrons from the electron transport chain18
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AP Biology Chapter 22 Flashcards

The Origin of Species

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6386515117The "Mystery of Mysteries"Darwin: Mystery of Mysteries = first appearance of new beings on Earth0
6386515118Speciationprocess by which one species splits into two or more species - speciation explains the features shared between organisms due to inheritance from their recent common ancestor1
6386515119Microevolutionsmall changes in allele frequency in a population over time2
6386515120Macroevolutionbroad large-scale patterns of evolutionary change generating new species3
6386515121Species"kind" or "appearance" - biologists compare morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and DNA sequences when grouping organisms4
6386515122Biological Species Concepta species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring - do not breed successfully with other populations - gene flow holds populations together genetically5
6386515123What is the main distinction that must occur for the origin and integrity of distinct species?reproductive isolation6
6386515124Reproductive Isolationbiological barriers that prevent two species from breeding and producing viable, fertile offspring - classified by whether barriers act before (prezygotic) or after (postzygotic) fertilization7
6386515125Hybridsoffspring of crosses between different species - reproductive isolation limits this!8
6386515126Habitat Isolationtwo species do not or rarely encounter each other because they occupy different habitats (prezygotic) example: two species of garter snakes9
6386515127Temporal Isolationspecies breed at different times of day, seasons or different years (prezygotic) example: Eastern and Western spotted skunks10
6386515128Behavioral Isolationcourtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species prevent mating with others - mate recognition (prezygotic) example: Blue Footed Boobies11
6386515129Mechanical Isolationmating attempt occurs, but morphological (structural) differences prevent successful mating (prezygotic) example: shells of two species of Snails Bradybaena12
6386515130Gametic Isolation- sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species - sperm may not be able to survive in female's reproductive tract of another species (prezygotic) example: Sea Urchins13
6386515131Reduced Hybrid Viabilitygenes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid's development or survival (postzygotic) example: salamanders - hybrids do not complete development14
6386515132Reduced Hybrid Fertilityeven if hybrids survive and live, they may be sterile (postzygotic) example: male donkey and female horse produce a mule that is sterile15
6386515133Hybrid Breakdownsome first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile (postzygotic) example: rice plants- left and right may produce small sterile plants (center)16
6386515134Allopatric Speciationforms a new species due to geographical isolation example: formation of bridges, new lakes, emergence of mountain ranges17
6386515135Sympatric Speciationresult of genetic isolation without a geographical barrier example: part of pop switches to new habitat, new food, accident during cell division18
6386515136Allopatric "Other Country" Speciation- gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations - the definition of a geographic barrier depends on the ability of a population to disperse example: canyon and small rodents vs. birds, coyotes or pollen - mutation and genetic drift can then occur and change the gene pool - natural selection will select the best-fit traits among the new group to survive - reproductive isolation may arise as a result19
6386515137Sympatric "Same Country" Speciationspeciation takes place in populations that live in the same geographic area occurs when gene glow is reduced between groups that remain in contact - Polyploidy - Habitat differentiation - Sexual selection20
6386515138Polyploidypresence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division (nondisjunction in meiosis) - more common in plants than animals (but still rare!) example: oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco and wheat21
6386515139Habit Differentiationsympatric speciation can result from the appearance of new ecological niches (new habitat or resource not used by parent populations) example: North American maggot fly - can live on native hawthorn trees along with recently introduced apple trees22
6386515140Sexual Selectionsexual selection can drive sympatric speciation sexual selection for mates of different colors has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria23
6386515141Hybrid Zonesa region where members of different species meet and mate and produce hybrid offspring24
6386515142Possible Outcomes of Hybrid Zones1. Reinforcement - barriers hold and hybrids disappear 2. Fusion - barriers give way and species fuse 3. Stability - barriers constant and continued production of hybrids25
6386515143Gradualismspecies descended from a common ancestor and gradually diverge more and more in morphology as they acquire unique adaptations (Darwin) - small, gradual changes over long periods of time - long periods of time are needed for evolution - fossils should show continuous links - problem: gradualism doesn't fit the fossil record well (many "gaps")26
6386515144Punctuated Equilibriumtheory that deals with the "pacing" of evolution; evolution has two speeds of change: Gradualism: periods of apparent stasis or slow change punctuated by rapid bursts of speciation observed in the fossil record example: Trilobite evolution speciation can occur over a very short period of time (1 to 1,000 generations), too fast for the fossil record to record - fossil record will have gaps or missing links - established species will show gradual change over long periods of time27
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AP Biology - Unit 7 - Cell Division Flashcards

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6086005995cell divisionProcess by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells0
6086038641cell cycleseries of events that cells go through as they grow and divide1
6086040832interphaseCell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases2
6086044485G1 phasethe cell undergoes most of its growing during this part of the cell cycle3
6086048190S phasethe cell replicates its DNA during this part of the cell cycle4
6086054314G2 phasethe cell prepares for division during this part of the cell cycle5
6086067261G0 phasea non-dividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.6
6086076481asexual reproductionProcess of reproduction involving a single parent that results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent7
6086076482sexual reproductionA reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents8
6087382464M phasethe cell splits its DNA and divides during this part of the cell cycle9
6087387350mitosisA cell's division of the nucleus. Final product is 2 cells that are exactly like the parent cell.10
6087391828meiosisA process in cell division during which the nucleus divides twice. Final product is 4 cells that are genetically different11
6087423128prophasePhase of mitosis in which duplicated chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle fibers begin to form12
6087423129metaphasePhase of mitosis in which the chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell13
6087423130anaphasePhase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell14
6087423131telophasePhase of mitosis in which a nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes.15
6087430350haploidAn organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes.16
6087430351diploidA cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes17
6087432950homologous chromosomesChromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure18
6087432951sister chromatidsReplicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II.19
6087436305somatic cellAny cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell.20
6087436306gametic cellreproductive cells, sperm and egg21
6087441616centrosomeA structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.22
6087441617spindleframework of microtubules that guide the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis23
6087441618centrioleCell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only24
6087444596kinetochoreA specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.25
6087446572tetradstructure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis26
6087446573crossing overProcess in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.27
6087448569cyclinA cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle.28
6087448570cyclin-dependent kinaseenzyme to which cyclin binds during interphase and mitosis, triggering and controlling activities during the cell cycle29
6096208935map unitThe distance on a chromosome within which crossing-over (recombination) occurs 1 percent of the time30
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AP Biology Test 1 Flashcards

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7564538666mitosiscell division, ends in two identical daughter cells0
7564538667mitotic index equationnumber of cells containing visible chromosomes/total number of cells in the field of view1
7564538668prophasechromosomes condense and become visible, nuclear membrane breaks down2
7564538669metaphasechromosomes line up in middle on metaphase plate3
7569488037anaphasechromosomes separate4
7569494870telophasenuclear membrane appears (visible line down the middle)5
7569498416meiosisgamete production, results in cells with the haploid number of chromosomes6
7569502255homologous chromosomes7
7569506137sister chromatids8
7569506945centromerewhere the sister chromatids are connected9
7569509054eukaryoteshave organelles, undergo mitosis for growth and repair10
7569513291plant buddingan offspring created through asexual reproduction by branching off of the parent11
7569520577prokaryotesdo not have organelles and undergo binary fission, bacteria12
7569521995binary fissionsimilar to mitosis, a single chromosome is replicated and split into two cells13
7569528211sexual reproduction createsgenetic diversity14
7569528785independent assortmentthere are multiple equally probable chromosome arrangements15
7569532962to determine the number of possible chromosomal combinations2^n16
7569535598independent assortment applies tonon-homologous chromosomes17
7569537155crossing overnon sister chromatids exchanging DNA segments during meiosis18
7569545413recombinant chromosomesindividual chromosomes that carry genes derived from two different parents19
7569549687random fertilizationthe combination of each unique sperm with each unique egg increases genetic variability20
7569561816hypothesisif the IV is modified in this, then this will happen to the DV21
7569568089the independent variable is the one beingmodified22
7569569730control is tested forcomparison23
7569569731to find the degrees of freedomsubtract 1 from the number of categories24
7569574885if there is no significant difference that means the only difference is due tochance and sampling errors25
7569579545in the SEM when the error bars overlap (+/- 2 SEM) we say that the data's difference isinsignificant26
7569587564in the SEM when the error bars don't overlap (+/- 2 SEM) we say that the data's difference issignificant27
7569594732in the median, the whiskers are NOTerror bars28
7569596165whiskers are not error bars because the whiskers only representa small portion of the data (the extremes)29
7569609614when comparing multiple tests for SEM, compare the tests to thecontrol30
7569641343+/- 1 SEM represents68%31
7569641344+/- 2 SEM represents95%32
7569642404+/- 3 SEM represents99%33
7569644749the null hypothesissuggest that there is no difference between the observed and expected34
7569646153p-valueindicates whether or not the difference is significant or not35
7569653647p > 0.05accept the null hypothesis, this means the difference is small between the values therefore there is a GREATER probability that the difference is due to chance and sampling errors36
7569660522p < 0.05 0.01 < p < 0.05 p < 0.05reject the null hypothesis, this means the difference is big between the values therefore there is a SMALLER probability that the difference is due to chance and sampling errors37
7569669753law of segregationeach allele separates into different gametes38
7569674241dihybrid crossa cross between two organisms that are heterozygous for two genes39
7569676669monohybrid crossa cross between two organisms that are heterozygous40
7569724874apply the addition rule tomutually exclusive events41
7569727476mutually exclusive eventscannot happen at the same time (an organism cannot be homozygous dominant and recessive at the same time)42
7569729582apply the multiplication rule toseparate, individual events43
7569740102natural selectionorganisms with advantageous heritable traits have a higher chance of surviving and reproducing44
7569744761evolution occurs on a ... not an individualpopulation45
7569748056evolution can only occur if the allele (mutation)already exists in small frequencies46
7569769711selective pressurean environmental change occurs where small frequency alleles become the dominant (most common) allele47
7569776989directional selectiona change occurs so the extremes have a better fitness then the dominant population48
7569782868fitnessorganisms ability to survive and reproduce49
7569809631stickleback fish without spines can have the same genetic code as stickleback fish with spines becausegenes have regulatory switches that allow them to be expressed50
7569814078evolution can repeat itselfif the organisms are put under the same selective and life-challenging conditions51
7569832374cytokinesisseparates the cells at the end of meiosis or mitosis52
7569841146somatic cellsany cells in the body other than reproductive cells53
7569842242autosomesall chromosomes except the sex chromosomes54
7569843972haploidone set of chromosomes55
7569846414diploidcontaining two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent56
7569851993during interphase, the genetic material isdispersed into the nucleus57
7571486162what does not occur when dividing bacteriamitosis58
7571495722how many genes are present in the human genometens of thousands59
7571498116locusthe precise location of a gene on a chromosome60
7571505300tetradsa set of homologous chromosomes61
7571516922if an organism is n=4 and undergoes meiosis, there will be ... tetrads462
7571612324ignoring crossover how many kinds of gametes can be produced with a diploid number of 44 (2^2)63
7571628260the major contribution of sex to evolution is thatit provides a method to increase genetic variation64
7571635707why is sexual reproduction advantageous over asexual reproductionenergetically, sexual reproduction is more costly, but sexual reproduction leads to different combinations of alleles that could provide adaptability in an environment65
7571684733when gametes meet a ... is createdzygote66
7571688923females have homologous chromosomesXX67
7571688924males have homologous chromosomesXY68
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Ap Biology Chapter 7 Flashcards

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4821649567Cell membraneConsists of lipids and proteins and it is selectively permiable0
4821649568AmphipathicPhospholipids-both hydrophobic and hydrophilic1
4821649569Fluid mosaic modelMembrane is a fluid structure2
4821649570PhospholipidsConstantly move laterally3
4821649571Cooler temperaturesThe cell membrane becomes solid4
4821649572Olive oil consistencyThe best membrane consistently5
4821649573Saturated membraneA more solid membrane6
4821649574Unsaturated membraneA more liquid membrane7
4821649575CholesterolSlows down the membrane but spaces them out (buffers of membrane)8
4821649576Peripheral proteinsBound to the surface- hydrophilic9
4821649577Hydrophobic-small molleculesMolecules that can dissolve in bilateral and pass through10
4821649578Transport proteinAllows hydrophilic things in11
4821649579AquaporinsOnly facilitates water transport12
4821649580Channel proteinTransport protein that certain things can use13
4821649581DiffusionMolecules want to go to more space-passive14
4821649582Concentration gradientA difference in concentration of a substance-passive15
4821649583OsmosisIs the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane using an aquaporin-passive16
4821649584TonicityAbility of a solution to make a cell gain or lose water17
4821649585Isotonic solutionSolute concentration is the same as the inside of the cell- no net water movement18
4821649586Hypertonic solutionSolute concentration is greater than that inside the cell- cell loses water19
4821649587Hypotonic solutionSolute concentration is less than that inside the cell-cell gains water20
4821649588LysedAnimal cells gaining too much water-hypotonic21
4821649589TurgidPlant cells normal puffed out-hypotonic22
4821649590Normalanimal cells normal-isotonic23
4821649591FlaccidNot perfect plant cells-isotonic24
4821649592Shriveled/crenatedAnimal cells choked of water-hypertonic25
4821649593PlasmolyzedPlant cells choked of water-hypertonic26
4821666706osmoregulationthe control of water balance27
4821667935Plasmolysisthe membrane of plant cells rip off the wall being lethal-occurs in hyper-tonic solutions28
4821678088Facilitated diffusionTransport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane29
4821684783Ion channelsChannels that open/close in response to stimuli (gated channels)30
4821745288Active transportThe move is substances against their concentration gradient-ATP-performed by specific proteins embedded in the membrane31
4821758490Sodium potassium pumpOne type of active transport system32
4821760235phosphorylationChanging the proteins shape(in the cell membrane)33
4821770014membrane potentialThe voltage difference across a membrane34
4821775008electrochemical gradientThe diffusion of ions across a membrane-a chemical, force ions concentration, and electrical force(membrane potential on the ions it movement) these 2 combine for this35
4821859953electrogenic pumpA transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane( sodium potassium pump is the main one for animals)36
4821867410Proton pumpThe main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria37
4821890517cotransportoccurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute(plants usually use hydrogen)38
4821898198Exocytosistransport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it and release their contents (secretory cells use this)-uses ATP39
4821904853Endocytosisthe cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane- 3 types, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis- uses ATP40
4821916224Bulk transportuses endocytosis and exocytosis and vesicles41
4821920196Pinocytosismolecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles42
4821925874Phagocytosisa cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole that fuses with a lysosome to digest it43
4821931005Receptor mediated endocytosisBinding of ligands to receptors, triggers vesicle formation44
4821937096Ligandany molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule45
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MHS AP Biology Cell Organelles Flashcards

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4861539942Nuclear Envelope-surrounds genetic material -separates nucleus from the cytoplasm -double lipid bilayer regulates what goes into the cell -present in both animal and plant cells0
4861539943Golgi Apparatus-packaging organelle -located in the cytoplasm -takes in small molecules and forms more complex molecules -can either store the more complex molecules or release them -has two layers that surround an area of fluid that contains proteins, enzymes, and sugars -present in both animal and plant cells1
4861539944Endoplasmic Reticulum-network of membranous sacs and tubes -surrounds the nucleus in the cytoplasm -active in membrane synthesis and metabolic processes -has rough and smooth regions -has double membrane called cisternae where proteins are collected and synthesized -present in both animal and plant cells2
4861539945Mitochondria-cellular respiration -ATP is generated -double membrane increases surface area within the organelle to allow more chemical reactions to occur -located in cytoplasm -present in both animal and plant cells3
4861539946Chloroplast-produce food for plant cells -convert light energy from the sun into sugars -double membrane surrounds and protects inner chloroplasts -located in cytoplasm -only present in plant cells4
4861539947Ribosome-makes proteins -located in cytosol or endoplasmic reticulum -present in both animal and plant cells5
4861539948Lysosome-hold enzymes -digest food and break down dead cells -located in cytoplasm -present in both animal and plant cells6
4861539949Vacuole-storage -located in cytoplasm -present in both animal and plant cells7
4861539950Cytoskeleton-reinforces cell's shape -functions in cell movement -made of proteins -proteins attach to them for stability -located on the outside of the cell -present in both animal and plant cells8
4861539951Cell Wall-outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage -semi permeable -located on the outside of the cell membrane -only present in plant cells9
4861539952Prokaryotic Cells-no nucleus -circular DNA located in cytoplasm -single celled -no organelles -bacteria, archaea, and eubacteria -more basic -have cell membranes -have ribosomes10
4861539953Eukaryotic Cells-have nucleus -have linear DNA located in nucleus -have organelles -cells animals have -multicellular -more complex -cell membranes -ribosomes11
4861539954Endosymbiotic Theory-describes how a large host cell and bacteria become dependent on each other for survival and form a permanent relationship -explains the evolution of mitochondria and chloroplasts -mitochondria and chloroplasts are very similar to bacteria cells: have their own DNA and use it to produce proteins and enzymes, both have double membranes that suggest that it was ingested by a host, and they reproduce similarly to bacteria by replicating their DNA12
4861539955Cell Membrane-separates cell from aqueous environment and controls traffic in and out of the cell -collage of proteins and other molecules embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer13
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