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ap biology chapter 28 Flashcards

5916838857	Protists	mostly, unicellular, very complex, most nutritionally diverse eukaryotes that are not plants, animals or fungi	0
5916838858	mixotrophs	combining photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition	1
5916838859	Three groups of protists	Algal protists, ingestive protoxoans, and absorptive fungus like protists	2
5916838860	secondary endosymbiosis	they were ingested in the food vauole of a heterotrophic eukaryote and became endosymbionts themselves; red/green algae underwent this	3
5916847104	Excavata (clade)	"excavated" feeding groove on one side of the cell body. excavates include the diplomonads, the parabasalids, and the euglenozoans. mixtotrophs	4
5916838861	Diplomonads and parabasalids	are found in anaerobic environments. These protists lack plastids and have modified mitochondria. mixotrophs	5
5916838862	Diplomonads	phyum metamonads ○ Mitosomes (modified mitochondria) lack functional electron transport chains ○ The diplomonads obtain energy from anaerobic biochemical pathways such as glycolysis. Diplomonads have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella. mixotrophs	6
5916838863	parabasalids	Phylum Metamonada reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes that generate energy anaerobically, releasing hydrogen gas as a by-product. include trichomonads, ex- trichomonas vaginalis mixtrophs	7
5916838864	Phylum Euglenozoa	kinetoplastids and euglenids; distinguished by the presence of a spiral, or crystalline rod inside their flagella mixotrophs	8
5916838865	Kinetoplastids	belong to euglenozoa; have a single, large mitochondrion that contains and organized mass of DNA called a kintoplast; symbiotic and include pathogenic parasites moist environments	9
5916838866	Euglenids	belong to euglenozoa; have one to three flagella at their apical (leading)end. no cellulose wall,they have thin, protein strips called pellicles that wrap over their cell membranes. They can become heterotrophic in the absence of light. Some have an eyespot that permits phototaxis, the ability to move in response to light.	10
5916838867	alveolata	a clade whose members have alveol under the plasma mebrane; include flagellated protists-Dinoflagellates, parasites Apicomplexans and Ciliates	11
5916838868	alveoli	small membrane-bound cavities	12
5916838869	Dinoflagellates	species characterized by cells that are reinforced by internal plates of cellulose. Two flagella sit in perpendicular grooves in this "armor" and produce a spinning movement. can cause red tides mixotrophic	13
5916838870	Apicomplexans	part of alveolata; are parasites of animals; can cause human disease ex-plasmodium (malaria); They are characterized by an apical complex, a complex of organelles located at an end (apex) of the cell. have intricate life cycles with both sexual/asexual stages with spores as method of motility no motility	14
5916838871	Sporozoites	parasites spread throught heir host as tiny infectious cells	15
5916838872	Ciliates	part of alveolata, a diverse group of protists named for their use of cilia to move and feed; has two types of nuclei, one large micronuclei (handles day to day functions), and tiny micronuclei (handles reproductions) reproduce asexually by binary fission or by conjugation paramecium	16
5916838873	apicoplast	a nonphotosynthetic plasmid that carries out vital functions including the synthesis of fatty acids; part of the apicomplexan	17
5916838874	conjugation	conjugation, a sexual phenomenon in which Paramecia of compatible mating types fuse temporarily and exchange genetic material. During conjugation, the micronuclei of each conjugant divide by meiosis and the haploid gametes pass from one cell to the other. The gametes of each organism then fuse to form diploid micronuclei. The old macronuclei are destroyed, and new ones are developed from the new micronuclei. no tube and differs from bacterial conjugation occurs due to environmental stresses	18
5916838875	stramenopila	(Stramen, straw; and pilos, hair) a clade that include both hterotrophic and phtosynthetic protists; refers to flagellum with numerous fine, hairlike projections	19
5916838876	Oomycetes	belong to stramenopila; cellulose walls , The filaments of Oomycota lack septa, Because they lack septa, they are coenocytic, containing many nuclei within a single filament water molds, downy mildews, and whiterusts have multinucleate filaments that resemble fungal hyphae; diploid dominant; flagellate spores, asexual and sexual; no plastids; decomposers;	20
5916838877	zoospore	a motile, flagellated spore	21
5916838878	diatoms	belong to stramenopila; are unicellular algae unique glasslike walls composed of hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix;	22
5916838879	Golden Algae (phylum)	Chrysophytes (chrysos, golden) belong to stramenopiles; are named for their yellow and brown carotenoids; cells are biflagellated; most are unicellular;	23
5916838880	brown algae (phylum)	Phaeophytes (phaios, dusky brown); that largest and most complex protists known, all are multicellular, and most are marine; they owe their color to carotenoids in their plastids;	24
5916838881	seaweed	largest marine algae, includes brown, red, and green algae; have a complex multicellular anatomy; they are analogous to plants	25
5916838882	thallus	(thallos, sprout) a seaweed bod that is plantlike but lacks true roots, stems and leaves	26
5916838883	holdfast	a rootlike structure that anchors a seaweed	27
5916838884	stipe	a stemlike structure of a seaweed	28
5916838885	blades	a leafe like structure of a seaweed that provides most of the surface area for phtosynthesis	29
5916838886	alternation of generations	the alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms, had a convergent evolution in the life cycle of plants; some algae still produce like this	30
5916838887	Sporophyte	diploid individual produces haploid spores (zoospores) by meiosis	31
5916838888	gametophyte	the haploid individual produces gametes by mitosis that fuse to form a diploid zygote	32
5916838889	heteromorphic	the sporophyte and gametophyte are structurally different in laminaria	33
5916838890	isomorphic	which the sporophytes and gametophytes look similar to each other, although they differ in chromosome number, occurs in other algal life cycles	34
5916838891	Cercozoa	a new clade taht contains the amoebas, and those that belong here are distinguished by their thread like pseudopodia; include the Chloraachniophytes and foraminiferans and related to radiolarians	35
5916838892	Amoeba	refer to protists that move and feed by means of pseudopodia, not a monophyletic group;	36
5916838893	pseudopodia	cellular extensions that bulge from the cell surface; when an amoeba moves it extens a pseudopodium and anchors the tip; cytoplasm then streams into the pseudopodium	37
5916838894	Foraminiferans (phylum)	belong to cercozoa; named for their porous shells or tests; have multichambered tests hardenedwith calcium carbonate; Pseudopodia extend through the pores for swimming, test formation, and feeding.	38
5916838895	radiolarians (phylum)	part of the cercozoa; mostly marine protists whose silica skeletons are fused into one delicate piece; pseudopodia known as axopodia radiate from the central body and are reinforced by microtubules; after death tests accumulate as an ooze that may be 100's meters thick in some seaflor locations	39
5916838896	Amoebozoans	many species of amoebas that have lobe-shaped pseudopodia belong to this clade includes gymnamoebas, entamoebas, and slime molds	40
5916838897	gymnamoebas	a large and varied group of amoeboxoans;	41
5916838898	entamoebas	belong to amoeboxoans; include free living and parsitic species,	42
5916838899	Slime molds	mycetoxoans (fungus animals); belong to amoebozoans; one thought to be fungi b/c they produce fruiting bodies that disperse their spore;but not. have diverged into two lineages with distinctive life cycles: plasmodial slie molds and cellular slime molds	43
5916838900	Plasmodial slime molds	brightly pigmented heterotrophic organisms; not multicellular, but rather a single mass of cytoplasm with multiple diploid nuclei that undergo synchronous mitotic divisions with no cytokinesis , primarily diploid	44
5916838901	plasmodial slime mold	the feeding stage of an amoeboid mass, with no more resources, stalks bearing spore capsules form. Haploid spores released from the capsule germinate into haploid amoeboid or flagellated cells, which fuse to form a diploid cell.	45
5916838902	Cellular slime molds	unicellularity and multicellularity; feeding stage consits of solitary cells that feed and divide mitotically as individuals; When food is scarce, the cells form an aggregate that functions as a unit, though cell remains separated by their membranes;	46
5917081468	cellular slime mold cycle	when food sources are scarce --->aggregate cells (slug) form stalk with capsule full of spores spores form haploid amoeba protists dominant stage in a cellular slime mold is the haploid stage. Only the zygote is diploid, produces amoebas, not stalk stimulus for aggregation is (cAMP), which is secreted by the amoebas that experience food deprivation first.	47
5916838903	red algae	(rhodophytes, rhodos-red) closest relatives of plants; have no flagellated stages in thier life cycle; red due to the pigment phycoerythrin; coloration depends on the depth that they inhabit; most are multicellular; thalli of red algal are filamentous; life cycles are especially diverse; alternation of generations is common	48
5916838904	green algae	closest relatives of plants; named for their grass-green chloroplasts; divided into two main chropus- Chlorophtes, and charophyceans	49
5916838905	Chlorophytes	part of green algae; live in fresh water but many are marine inhabitants; some live in damp soil, other on glaciers and snowfields; some live symbiotically with fungi to form lichens	50
5916838906	Large size and complexity in chlorphytes	has evolved by three different mechanisms; formation of colonies of individual cells; the repeated division of nuclei w/o cytoplasmic division to form multinucleate filaments; the formation of true multicellular forms by ell division and cell differentiation	51
5916838907	Charophyceans	the other group of green algae is most closely related to land plants	52
5917066890	Rhizaria	chlorarachniophytes, forams, and radiolarians	53

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AP Biology Chapter 55 Flashcards

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7353773836	Ecosystem	The sum of all the organisms living in a given area and the abiotic factors with which they interact (varying sizes of areas)	0
7353773837	Energy flow in ecosystems	Enters as sunlight, goes to autotrophs, dispersed among heterotrophs	1
7353773838	Chemical cycling in ecosystems	Chemical elements cycled among biotic and abiotic parts of the ecosystem (Photosynthesis, Chemosynthesis)	2
7353773839	How to study ecosystem processes	Alter environmental factors such as temperature or nutrients	3
7353773840	What do cells do to energy and matter	Transform according to the law of thermodynamics	4
7353773841	First law of thermodynamics	Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only transferred or transformed	5
7353773842	Second law of thermodynamics	Every exchange of energy increases the entropy of the universe (Energy conversions are often inefficient)	6
7353773843	Law of Conservation of Mass	Matter cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed	7
7353773844	Primary producer	Trophic level that supports all others (Autotroph)	8
7353773845	Primary consumer	Herbivore that eats the primary producers (Heterotroph)	9
7353773846	Secondary consumer	Carnivores that eat herbivores	10
7353773847	Tertiary consumer	Carnivores that eat other carnivores	11
7353773848	Detrivores/Decomposers	Get nutrients from nonliving organic material (dead organisms, fallen leaves)	12
7353773849	Detritus	Nonliving organic material	13
7353773850	Two important detrivore groups	Prokaryotes and Fungi	14
7353773851	How do detrivores digest organic material?	Secrete enzymes and absorb	15
7353773852	Primary production of an ecosystem	The amount o flight energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs in the form of organic compounds	16
7353773853	What limits the possible photosynthetic output of ecosystems	The amount of solar radiation that ultimately reaches Earth's surface	17
7353773854	Gross Primary Production (GPP)	Total primary production in an ecosystem-- the amount of energy from light converted the chemical energy or organic molecules per unit time	18
7353773855	Net Primary Production (NPP)	Gross primary production minus the energy used by the primary producers for their "autotrophic respiration" (Usually half of GPP on average) (Expressed as energy per unit area per unit time)	19
7353773856	Standing crop	The total biomass of photosynthetic autotrophs present	20
7353773857	Net Ecosystem Production (NEP)	Measure of the total biomass accumulation during a given period of time NEP+ GPP-R	21
7353773858	How to measure NEP?	Measure the net flow of CO2 or O2 entering or leaving the ecosystem	22
7353773859	What controls primary production in aquatic ecosystems?	Light and nutrients	23
7353773860	Limiting nutrient	The element that must be added for production to increase (Usually Nitrogen or Phosphorous--sometimes iron)	24
7353773861	Eutrophication	In aquatic ecosystems, Detrivores decompose dead primary producers and deplete the water of much or all of its oxygen and cause the loss of many fish species	25
7353773862	What controls primary production in terrestrial ecosystems?	Temperature and Moisture	26
7353773863	Evapotranspiration	The total amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape-- increases with temperature	27
7353773864	What limits primary production in terrestrial ecosystems?	Soil nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) Soil pH	28
7353773865	What adaptations have plants made to help better take in nutrients	Nitrogen-fixing bacteria form a symbiosis with plant roots Mychorrizhal phosphorous-supplying association between fungi and plants Release enzymes to attract nutrients	29
7353773866	Secondary Production	The amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given period	30
7353773867	Energy production efficiency	Percentage of energy stored in assimilated food that is not used for respiration	31
7353773868	Net secondary production	The energy stored in biomass represented by growth and reproduction	32
7353773869	Assimilation of primary production	Consists of total energy taken in used for growth, reproduction, and respiration (not including losses in feces)	33
7353773870	Trophic efficiency	Percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next (generally only about 10% and range from 5-20% (90% of the energy in one trophic level is typically not transferred to the next)	34
7353773871	Pyramid of Net production	Demonstrates the loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain, trophic levels are arranged in tiers where the width of each trophic level is proportional to the net production in Joules	35
7353773872	Biomass pyramid	Represents ecological consequences of low trophic efficiencies, each tier represents the standing crop (total dry mass of all oragnisms) in one trophic level	36
7353773873	Turnover time	Measures a species standing crop in the duration of time it grows, reproduces, and dies Standing crop/Production	37
7353773874	Carbon cycle	CO2 -> Photosythesis -> Cellular respiration	38
7353773875	Nitrogen cycle	N2 -> N fixation -> Organisms -> Denitrification	39
7353773876	Biogeochemical cycles	Cycles that involve both biotic and abiotic components (Nutrient cycles)	40
7353773877	What are the two general categories of biogeochemical cycles	Global and Local	41
7353773878	The water cycle (lol)	Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation	42
7353773879	Phosphorous cycle	Weathering of rocks adds phosphorous to soil, some leaches into groundwater and surface water and may eventually reach the sea, producers take in phosphates, consumers eat producers, phosphate is returned to soil or water (Phosphorous never goes into the atmosphere)	43
7353773880	How have ecologists worked out the details of chemical cycling?	Isotope usage -- follow nonradioactive naturally occurring isotopes --adding tiny amounts of traceable radioactive isotopes (C14)	44
7353773881	What factors control the rate of decomposition	The same factors that limit primary production: temperature, moisture, nutrient availability	45
7353773882	Hubbard Brook Deforestation Study	Showed that the amount of nutrients leaving an intact forest ecosystem is controlled mainly by the plants	46
7353773883	Ecosystem damages	Farming, Mining, Salts from irrigation, Oil spills	47
7353773884	What do restoration ecologists work to do?	Identify and manipulate the processes that most limit recovery of ecosystems from disturbances	48
7353773885	Bioremediation	Using organisms- usually prokaryotes, fungi, or plants, to detoxify polluted ecosystems	49
7353773886	Biological Augmentation	Uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem	50
7353773887	How much of visible light is converted to chemical energy by photosynthetic organisms?	Only 1%	51
7353773888	Is net primary productivity higher in the summer or fall?	Fall because there is a need for less respiration because less photosynthesis is occurring	52

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AP Biology Chapter 14 Flashcards

Gene Expression

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6062834601	How does DNA code for traits?	the DNA inherited by an organism dictates the synthesis of proteins which are the link between genotype and phenotype.	0
6062834602	Gene Expression	the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, includes two stages: transcription and translation	1
6062839605	1902 Archibold Garrod	"One Gene - One Enzyme" - first suggested that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes that catalyze specific chemical reactions - He thought symptoms of an inherited disease reflect an inability to synthesize a certain enzyme example: alkaptonuria	2
6062863082	Revision: One Gene - One Protein	- some proteins are not enzymes (example: keratin in animal hair) - many proteins are composed of several polypeptides, each of which has its own gene (example: hemoglobin in blood - made of two polypeptides each coded its own gene) now: "One Gene - One Polypeptide"	3
6062879580	Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation	- DNA provides the instructions to make a specific protein - RNA is the link between gene and protein - DNA codes for RNA and RNA codes for the protein	4
6062895502	Basics of Transcription & Translation cont'd	RNA is chemically similar to DNA, but RNA has a ribose sugar and the base uracil (U) rather than thymine (T) - RNA is usually single-stranded - RNA can leave the nucleus - getting from DNA to protein requires two stages: Transcription and Translation	5
6062906672	Transcription	synthesis of RNA using information in DNA - site of Transcription: nucleus - end Product: messenger RNA (mRNA) - DNA: C A T G A C - RNA: G U A C U G	6
6062914524	Translation	synthesis of a polypeptide, using the information in the mRNA - site of translation: ribosomes - product: polypeptide (protein)	7
6062938414	Genetic Code	sequence of DNA bases that describe which Amino Acid to place in what order in a polypeptide - the genetic code gives the primary protein structure	8
6062959873	Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides	problem: RNA consists of four "letters" A, U, G, and C proteins consist of 20 "letters" - the amino acids - if 1 base = 1 amino acid, then 4 bases = 4 amino acids - we know there are 20! - Triplet Code: a series of three-nucleotide "words" that code for a specific amino acid - these "words" are then translated into a chain of amino acids - forming a polypeptide example: GGU = Glycine	9
6062972551	Genetic Code & Codons	genetic code is based on codons Codon: non-overlapping mRNA base triplets that code for a specific amino acid - 64 possible codons known - has redundancy; some AA's have more than 1 code - however: each 3 letter code codes for only 1 specific amino acid	10
6063014817	How many codons does it take to make 3 amino acids?	3 codons	11
6063014818	How many nucleotides does it take to make 5 amino acids?	15 nucleotides	12
6063017187	How many amino acids are made by 6 codons?	6 amino acids	13
6063017188	How many amino acids are made by 9 nucleotides?	3 amino acids	14
6074446467	RNA Polymerase	pries DNA strands apart and joins together the RNA nucleotides - assembles RNA nucleotides in the 5' -> 3' direction, using the DNA strand as a template - can start without a primer DNA Template: T A C G A T mRNA: A U G C U A	15
6074469531	Promoter	sequence signaling the end of transcription in bacteria	16
6074468429	Terminator	DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches to begin RNA synthesis	17
6074471553	Transcription Unit	entire stretch of DNA that is transcribed into mRNA	18
6074482092	3 Stages of Transcription: Initiation	1. Transcription Factors: proteins that assist the binding of RNA polymerase to initiate transcription - recognize TATA box 2. Transcription Initiation Complex: completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter	19
6074512522	3 Stages of Transcription	Initiation: after the Transcription Initiation Complex is formed, RNA Polymerase unwinds and unzips DNA to start RNA synthesis Elongation: the polymerase moves downstream, unwinding the DNA and elongating the RNA transcript 5' -> 3' - in the wake of transcription, the DNA strands re-form a double helix Termination: stops when RNA Pol II reaches the polyadenylation signal sequence (AAUAAA) - the RNA transcript is released, and the polymerase detaches from the DNA after closing the helix	20
6074523856	Transcription Final Product	Eukaryotes: Pre-mRNA - this is a "raw" RNA that will need further processing Prokaryotes: do not need any processing	21
6074537575	Eukaryotic Cells Modify RNA After Transcription	- in Prokaryotes, mRNA is directly translated into the polypeptide (protein) - in Eukaryotes, mRNA is processed first before being sent out into the cytoplasm these modifications make the mRNA molecule ready for translation	22
6074565235	RNA Processing	modification of pre-mRNA - during RNA processing both ends of the primary transcript (mRNA) are altered	23
6074556046	Alteration of mRNA Ends	5' end: receives a modified G nucleotide "5' cap" 3' end: gets a poly-A tail - repeated A sequence function: prevent mRNA degradation by hydrolytic enzymes - helps attach to the ribosome during translation - helps facilitate export of the mRNA from the nucleus	24
6074577900	RNA Splicing	removes noncoding (non-translating) regions of mRNA (introns) and joins together coding regions (exons) - this creates an mRNA strand that has a continuous coding sequence	25
6074586071	Introns	noncoding regions of mRNA that lie between exons	26
6074588663	Exons	coding regions that are translated into amino acid sequences	27
6074595048	Spliceosome	large complex of proteins and small RNAs - the spliceosome binds to several short nucleotide sequences along the intron - intron is released and the spliceosome joins together the two exons on either side	28
6074613091	Ribozymes	RNA molecules that act as enzymes - are sometimes Intron RNA and cause splicing without a spliceosome - in other words, can splice themselves out of the mRNA transcript!	29
6124282451	Translation is the RNA- directed synthesis of a polypeptide	- genetic information flows from mRNA to protein through the process of translation - overall goal: use mRNA generated from transcription and form a polypeptide!	30
6124291884	Transfer RNA (tRNA)	molecule that reads mRNA codons and builds a polypeptide accordingly - tRNAs transfer corresponding amino acids to the growing polypeptide in a ribosome - a tRNA molecule consists of a single RNA strand that is only 80 nucleotides long - 3' end of tRNA carries an amino acid - the other end of tRNA molecules contain an anticodon that pairs with the codon on the mRNA strand	31
6124339583	Accurate Translation Requires Two Steps:	1st: a correct match between a tRNA and an amino acid - done by the enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase - 20 different synthetases! Uses ATP. 2nd: a correct match between the tRNA anticodon and mRNA codon	32
6124361037	Ribosomes	- facilitate specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons during protein synthesis - large and small ribosomal units are made of proteins and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) - only join to form a ribosome when attached to an mRNA molecule	33
6124387264	Ribosome: 3 Binding Sites	1. P site: holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain 2. A site: holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain 3. E site: "exit" site, where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome	34
6124398428	Building a Polypeptide	the three stages of translation require protein "factors" and ATP that aid in the translation process 1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination	35
6124422397	Ribosome Association and Initiation of Translation	- initiation: brings together mRNA, tRNA (carrying 1st amino acid) and the two subunits of a ribosome - a small ribosomal subunit binds with mRNA and a special initiator tRNA carrying the a.a. Methionine to pair with mRNA "start" codon AUG - in eukaryotes, initiator tRNA binds to 5' Cap then scans downstream until reaching AUG - next a large ribosomal subunit arrives and forms "translation initiation complex" - requires energy and initiation factors	36
6124440360	Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain	- elongation: amino acids are added one by one to the previous amino acid at the C-terminus (COOH) of the growing chain - occurs in three steps: codon recognition, peptide bond formation and translocation - translation proceeds along mRNA in the 5' -> 3' direction	37
6124485158	Termination of Translation	- termination: Occurs when a stop codon in the mRNA reaches the A site of the ribosome - the A site accepts a protein called a release factor - the release factor adds a water instead of an amino acid - releasing the polypeptide (hydrolysis) - the translation assembly comes apart Stop Codons: UAG, UAA, and UGA - do not code for an amino acid	38
6124517374	Targeting Polypeptides to Specific Locations	-after translation, polypeptides fold to assume their specific conformation and are sometimes modified further - the destination of a protein is determined by the sequence of about 20 amino acids at the leading end of a polypeptide chain called the signal peptide - the signal peptide serves as a cellular zip code - directing proteins to their final destination	39
6124532743	Polyribosomes - Proks AND Euks	- cluster of ribosomes all reading the same mRNA - another way to make multiple copies of a protein simultaneously	40
6156986445	Mutations	changes in the genetic material of a cell - may be at a chromosome or DNA level	41
6156986446	Point Mutations	chemical changes in one or a few nucleotide pairs of a gene - effects: none to fatal - Substitutions, Insertions and Deletions - the change of just one nucleotide in a DNA template strand can lead to the production of an abnormal protein	42
6157003103	Nucleotide-Pair Substitution	replaces one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides	43
6157004588	Silent Mutations	have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of the redundancy in the genetic code	44
6157021741	Missense Mutation	still codes for an amino acid, but not the correct one - most common	45
6157037752	Nonsense Mutation	change in amino acid codon into a premature stop codon - nearly always leading to a nonfunctional protein	46
6157051216	Insertions and Deletions	additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene - NOT in multiples of three - can have disastrous effects on the resulting protein!!! - may produce a frameshift mutation (example: Tay Sach's) - alters the reading frame of the genetic message	47
6157095937	Mutagens	materials that cause DNA changes 1. Radiation (example: UV light, X-rays) 2. Chemicals (example: 5-bromouracil) - any material that can chemically bond to DNA or is chemically similar to Nitrogen bases will be a strong mutagen	48
6157105032	What is a gene?	a gene is a region of DNA that can be expressed to produce a final functional product - the product can be a protein or a RNA molecule	49

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AP Biology - Chemistry Review Flashcards

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4776587160	Atom	Is made up of a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutrally charged neurons. It has electrons arranged outside the nucleus.	0
4776592194	Molecules	Groups of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.	1
4776596689	Chemical Bonds	This bond happens because of the interaction between electrons.	2
4776598536	Electronegativity	Measure of tendency for the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards it, from its bond.	3
4776608423	Ionic Bond	This type of bong is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.	4
4776628062	Why Ionic bonding happens?	When electronegativity of atoms differ and one has a stronger pull than the other for the electrons. The attraction of the charges constitutes for the bond.	5
4776579856	Ions	Atoms that gain electrons have a negative charge. Atoms that lose electrons have a positive charge. Because of their charge the become this.	6
4776653496	Covalent Bond	A bond where electron pairs are shared and neither atom has them.	7
4776662240	Non-polar Covalent Bond	Bond where electrons are shared equally. Usually the two atoms are identical, where the electronegativity is equal and so is the pull.	8
4776673237	Polar Covalent Bond	Bond where electrons are shared unequally. Electronegativity are different, unequal electron distribution, and electrons forms bond closer to atom with higher electronegativity. It produces a pole, with weaker pole (+) and stronger pole(-).	9
4776698313	Hydrogen bond	Its a weak bond between molecules. It forms when polar positive H molecules attract the polar negative molecules of other covalently bonded molecules.	10
4782799006	Excellent Solvent	Property of water that makes ionic substances soluble (dissolvable) in water because of the ions that forms the two poles. When polar covalent bonded substances interact with water and the poles becomes soluble.	11
4782865982	Why non-polar substances do not dissolve in water?	These substances are hydrophobic and do not dissolve in water because they lack charged poles.	12
4782878421	High Heat Capacity	Property of water that has to do with the change of temperature due to the increase or decrease of heat. This property is high on water as it changes temperature very slowly with stable changes.	13
4783152394	...	Water expands and becomes less dense than liquid as it freezes, as a result it exalts this property.	14
4783165330	Strong cohesion	...	15
4783166550	Strong adhesion	...	16
4783167211	Organic Molecules	Molecules that have carbon	17
4783169204	Macromolecules	Large organic molecules with many carbons. Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, and Proteins are big ones.	18
4783188068	Polymer	Molecules that consist of a single unit (monomer) repeatedly.	19
4783192788	Functional Groups	Specific groups of molecules that are responsible for the characteristic of other molecules due to their make up. Main seven groups are hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, methyl, carbonyl ketone, and carbonyl aldehyde.	20
4783208937	Hydroxyl Gropup	Alcohols (like ethanol), glycerol, and sugars belong to this group. They are characterized as polar hydrophilic.	21
4783217378	Carboxyl Group	Carboxyl acids (like acetic acid), amino acids, fatty acids, and sugars belong to this group. Characterized as polar, hydrophilic, and weak acid.	22
4783222883	Amino Group	Amines and amino acids are examples for this group. They are characterized as polar, hydrophilic, and weak bases.	23
4783226203	Phosphate Group	Organic phosphates that help to make up DNA, ATP, and phospholipids. They are categorized as polar, hydrophilic, and acids.	24
4783253086	Ketone	Acetones and sugars are examples of this functional group. They are characterized as polar, hydrophilic. They are a type of carbonyl with a central carbon.	25
4783259910	Aldehyde	Formaldehyde is an example of it. It is a carbonyl with a carbon double bonded to an oxygen. It has characteristics that are polar and hydrophilic.	26
4783266662	Methyl	A group of only carbons and hydrogens. Fatty acids, oils, and waxes are examples of this group. They are characterized as non polar and hydrophobic.	27
4783273827	Carbohydrates	Macromolecule composed of elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio ((CH2O)n), respectively. They are used as storage forms of energy and they are structural molecules.	28
4783284695	Monosaccharides	Simplest kind of carbohydrates. It is a single sugar molecule. Glucose and fructose are its most common examples.	29
4782791183	Excellent Solvent	Property of water that makes ionic substances soluble (dissolvable)	30
4785897623	Inorganic Compound	Compounds tgat do not contain the element carbon. Salts and HCl are examples.	31
4785897624	Glucose	Single sugar subunit. Exist in alpha and beta form. Its formula is that of C6H12O6.	32
4785897625	Disaccharide	2 sugar molecules joined by glycosidic linkages. Maltose and sucrose are examples.	33
4785897626	Glycosidic linkages	Process that links sugar molecules through a loss of water molecule. Also called dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction.	34
4785982294	Hydrolysis Reaction	A process that breaks down large polymers into smaller subunits by adding water.	35
4785982295	Polysaccharides	Polymers or chains of repeating monosaccharide sububits. Glycogen and starch are examples.	36
4785982296	Starch	Polymer of of alpha glucose molecules. It serves as a storage molecules for plant cells.	37
4785982297	Glycogen	Polysaccharide made up of alpha glucose subunits. It is a major energy storage molecule in animal cells.	38
4785982298	Cellulose	Polymer of beta glucose. Serves as a structural molecule in plant cells. It is insoluble in water. Only some organisms like bacteria can break down their bonds.	39
4786036233	Chitin	Polysaccharide of beta glucose. It's glucose molecule has nitrogen group attached to ring. It serves as a structural molecule in walls of fungus cells and in exoskeleton of insects, other anthropods, and mollusks.	40
4787011773	Lipid	A macromolecule composed of C,H,and O in big ratios. It consist of 3 fatty acid molecules bonded to a single glycerol backbone. They serve as food storaging molecules in animals. They also release a lot of energy and provide insulation and protection against injury since they are made up of fatty (adipose) tissue.	41
4787011774	Fatty Acids	Hydrocarbons with carboxyl group at one end. They are attached to a glycerol molecule.	42
4787011775	Hydrocarbons	Chains of covalently bonded Carbon and Hydrogen's.	43
4787011776	Saturated Fatty Acid	Lipid structure that is a single covalently bonded between each pair of carbon atom. It said thag each carbon is full of hydrogens.	44
4787011777	Monosaturated Fatty Acid	One double covalent bond and each carbon has one hydrogen bound to it. A lipid structure.	45
4787011778	Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid	A lipid structure that is covalently bonded with carbon atoms and hydrogen. It has two or more double (C=C) bonds.	46
4787011779	Phospholipids	A lipid structure but with one of its fatty acids replaced with a phosphate group. Its tails are nonpolar hydrophobic while its phosphate head is hydrophilic and polar. This provides the structure and support of the cell membrane.	47
4787011780	Steroids	Lipid derived structure that has a backbone of four rings. Three of its rings ar3 cyclohexanes and one fused cyclopebtane ring. Cholesterol, the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, and corticosteroid are examples of it.	48
4787011781	Waxes	Esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols. They are found as protective coating on skin, fur, leaves, of higher plants, and on the exoskeleton of many insects.	49
4787071579	Proteins	Macromolecule composed primarily of elements C,H,O,N but may contain P and S. They are polymers of amino acids.	50
4787071580	Amino Acids	Polymers and the building blocks of proteins. They are bonded covalently. There are a total of 19 of them plus one amine group. It is constructed with a central (alpha) carbon bounded to an amino group, carboxyl group, an H-atom, and the R-groups (side chain groups). They are represented by three letters.	51
4787071581	Polypeptide Chains	Chain of amino acids joined through peptide bonds. Also called a peptide because they have become a polymer.	52
4787071582	Structural Proteins	These type of proteins contribute to the physical support of cell or tissue and movement. They may be extracellular like collagen in cartilage, bone, and tendons, or intracellular like proteins in cell membrane. Another example the keratin	53
4789994456	Storage Protein	Proteins that store materials such as amino acids for later use.	54
4789994457	Transport Protein	This type of protein carries important materials in and out of the cell. Hemoglobin is an example that carries oxygen in the circulation and the cytochromes carry electrons during cellular respiration.	55
4820216533	Signaling Protein	These proteins control physiological processes such as hormones.	56
4820222814	Receptor Proteins	These proteins receive and respond to chemical signals.	57
4789994458	Defensive Proteins	Proteins that bind to foreign particles (antigens), including disease causing organism that have enetered the body. Antibodies is an example.	58
4789994459	Enzymes	Biological catalyst that act by increasing the rate of chemical reactions important for biological functions. Amylase, lipase, and ATPase are examples.	59
4790060858	Primary Structure	It is the sequence of amino acids. It is the way that amino acids are ordered.	60
4790060859	Secondary Structure	Its the 3D shaped property of amino acids that results from H-bonding of amino and carboxyl of adjecent group of amino acids. Produces alpha helixis (spiral) and beta-pleated sheets (folded planes). Fibrous proteins dominated by these shapes.	61
4790060860	Tertiary Structure	Protein property that has 3D shaping and dominates globular proteins. It has hydrogen bonding and ionic bonding between r-groups of amino acids. it has hydrophobic effect happening among r-groups that move towards the center of the of the protein and away from the water. It also has disulfide bonds to help maintains turns of AA by binding to the sulfur atom of two different cystine AA.	62
4798366868	Quaternary Structure	Protein assembled from two or more chains. Hemoglobin is an example as it consist of four peptide chains that are held together by the interactions between the r-groups.	63
4798370004	Nucleic Acids	A macromolecule that contains elements C,H,O,N, and P. Nucleotides are their polymers. They code all of the information required by an organism to produce proteins and replicate through DNA and RNA.	64
4798378591	DNA	The cells genetic info storage molecule. Also called Deoxynucleic Acid. It is a polymer of nucleotides. It consist of a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group. It appears as a two stranded spiral or double helix. Their strands are antiparallel (oriented in opposing directions).	65
4798389978	Adenine	A two ring purine nitrogenous base that binds to thymine. Uracil if it is as a RNA molecule.	66
4798392397	Guanine	A two ring purine nitrogenous base that binds to Cytosine.	67
4798394274	Thymine	A one ring pyrimidine nitrogenous base that binds to adenine.	68
4798395373	Cytosine	A one ring nitrogenous base that binds to guanine.	69
4798402808	Double Stranded	How the DNA molecule is oriented. Its' spiral and double helix form is known as this. It is oriented from a five prime to a three prime orientation. The phosphate is on the fifth carbon and it ends where the other nucleotide would attach to the third deoxyribose carbon.	70
4798461148	RNA	Information transcribed here from a DNA molecule to direct various metabolic activity of the cell. It is a single stranded molecule that is made with a ribonucleic sugar. it differs from a DNA molecule because of its sugar ribose, thymine nitrogenous base is replaced with Uracil to pair with adenine, and it doesn't form a double helix.	71
4798515011	Metabolism	Chemical reaction that occurs in biological system. It happens because of the collision of reacting molecules.	72
4798538079	Activation Energy	Maximum amount of energy that is required in order to trigger the formation of a bond or start a chemical reaction.	73
4798552933	Catalyst	Substance that accelerates reaction but does not go through chemical change.	74
4798558320	Catabolism	a process that breaks down subtances	75
4798564481	Anabolism	Synthesis- formation of new product	76
4798568540	Chemical Equilibrium	A metabolic process where the concentration of reactant and end products drives the overall reaction. The rate of reaction equal and there is no net production.	77
4820138597	Sulfhydryl	By giving up H, two —SH groups can react to form a disulfide bridge, thus stabilizing protein structure.	78
4859228474	Substrate	The reactants in enzyme-catalyzed reactions.	79
4859235530	Induced Fit	Describes how enzymes work. Enzymes have an active site where the reactants (substrates) readily interact due to the shape, polarity, and other characteristics matching. Their interaction changes the shape of the enzyme which places the substrate in a favorable position to interact. This interaction is referred as this.	80
4859261835	Co-factor	Are non -polar molecules that assist enzymes	81
4859284607	Holoenzyme	Is the complete enzyme with all of its associated parts (cofactors and coenzymes,)	82
4859292262	Coenzymes	Its an organic molecule (cofactor) that functions to donate or accept some component of reaction (often the electrons).	83
4859309156	Inorganic Cofactors	These are inorganic molecules often metal ions such as iron.	84
4859331120	ATP	Adenosine Triphosphate	85

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AP Biology Chapter 16 Flashcards

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8556810480	DNA Replication	the process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis	0
8556810481	Transformation	a change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell transforming substance- DNA	1
8556810482	Bacteriophages	Viruses that infect bacteria Bacteria eaters	2
8556810483	Virus	infects a cell and takes over the cell's metabolic machinery	3
8556810484	Hershey and Chase	Concluded that phage DNA entered bacterial host cells, but phage proteins did not, so DNA functions as the genetic material	4
8556810485	Griffith	Concluded that nonpathogenic bacteria transformed into pathogenic bacteria by an unknown, heritable substance from the dead S cells that enabled the R cells to make capsules	5
8556810486	Chargaff's Law	the base compostion of DNA varies between species and for each species, the percentages of A and T bases are roughly equal to the percentages of the G and C bases	6
8556810487	Rosalind Franklin	accomplished X-ray crystallographer that discovered the double helix of DNA	7
8556810488	Antiparallel	subunits run in opposite directions	8
8556810489	Nitrogenous bases of DNA	A, T, C, G	9
8556810490	Purines	A and G Nitrogenous bases with two organic rings	10
8556810491	Pyrimidines	C and T Nitrogenous base with a single organic ring	11
8556810492	Conservative model	two parental strands reassociate after acting as templates for new strands thus restoring the parental double helix	12
8556810493	Semiconservative Model	the two strands of the parental molecule separate and each functions as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand- most common	13
8556810494	Dispersive Model	each strand of both daughter molecules contains a mixture of old and newly synthesized DNA	14
8556810495	Origins of Replication	short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides	15
8556810496	Replication Fork	a Y shaped region where the parental strands of DNA are being unwound	16
8556810497	Helicases	enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and make them available as template strands	17
8556810498	Single Strand Binding Proteins	Bind to the unpaired DNA strands keeping them from repairing	18
8556810499	Topoisomerase	The untwisting of double helix causes tighter twisting and strain ahead of replication fork Relieve this strain by breaking swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands	19
8556810500	Primer	The initial nucleotide chain that is produced during DNA synthesis is actually a short stretch of RNA	20
8556810501	Primase	Synthesizes the primer Starts a complementary RNA chain from a single RNA nucleotide, adding more RNA nucleotides one at a time, using the parental DNA strand as a template	21
8556810502	DNA polymerases	Enzyme that catalyze the synthesis of new DNA by adding nucleotides to a preexisting chain	22
8556810503	Leading strand	Strand that continuously adds nucleotides to the new complementary strand as the fork progresses DNA pol III	23
8556810504	Lagging Strand	The strand that DNA pol III works away from the replication fork Synthesized discontinuosly as a series of segments	24
8556810505	Okazaki fragments	Series of segments that are 1000-2000 nucleotides long	25
8556810506	DNA Ligase	joins the sugar phosphate backbones of all the Okazaki fragments into a continuous DNA strand	26
8556810507	DNA pol III	Synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to an RNA primer or a pre-existing DNA strand	27
8556810508	DNA pol I	Removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5' end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides	28
8556810509	Mismatch repair	Other enzymes remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides that have resulted from replication errors	29
8556810510	Nuclease	DNA cutting enzyme that cuts out the damaged parts of the strand and fills the space with nucleotides using the undamaged strand as a template	30
8556810511	Nucleotide excision repair	DNA repair system where teams of enzymes detect and repair the DNA, the nuclease cuts out the damaged DNA and removes it, fills in the missing nucleotides and the DNA ligase seals the free end of the new DNA to the old DNA making the strand complete	31
8556810512	Telomeres	Special nucleotide sequences at the ends of chromosomes TTAGGG is repeated between 100-1000 times Prevent the staggered ends of daughter molecule from activitating cell's system for monitoring DNA damage	32
8556810513	Telomerase	Enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells and restores the original length and compensating for the shortening that occurs during DNA replication	33
8556810514	Histones	Proteins that are responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin	34
8556810515	Nucleosome	the basic unit of DNA packing	35
8556810516	Chromatin	complex of DNA and protein	36
8556810517	Heterochromatin	centromeres and telomeres exist in a highly condensed state with visible irregular clumps making it largely inaccessible	37
8556810518	Euchromatin	centromeres and telomeres exist in a less compacted state that is very accessible	38

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Ap Biology Chapter 48 Flashcards

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5199132303	Ganglia	Clusters of neurons(primitive brains)	0
5199138496	Sensory neurons	Sensors detect external stimuli and internal conditions and transmit information along these	1
5199150086	Interneurons	Neurons that integrate the sensory information sent into the brain or ganglia	2
5199157933	Motor neurons	Neurons that trigger muscle or gland activity	3
5199174044	Central Nervous System (CNS)	Where integration takes place; this includes the brain and a nerve cord	4
5199184145	Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)	Brings information into and out of the CNS	5
5199189842	Cell body	Most of a neuron's organelles are here	6
5199193214	Dendrites	Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons	7
5199200320	Axon	A much longer extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses	8
5199207923	Axon hillock	Where the axon attaches to the cell body	9
5199212557	Synapse	A junction between an axon and another cell	10
5199216764	Synaptic terminal	One axon passes information across the synapse in the form of chemical messengers	11
5199226357	Neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers	12
5199231364	Presynaptic cell	A neuron	13
5199234244	Postsynaptic cell	A neuron, muscle, or gland	14
5199236739	Glia	Most neurons are nourished or insulated by this	15
5199244406	Membrane potential	A voltage (difference in electrical charge) across the plasma membrane	16
5199251604	Resting potential	The membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals	17
5199256089	Ion channels	The openings in the plasma membrane that convert chemical potential to electrical potential	18
5199293866	Equilibrium potential E(ion)	The membrane voltage for a particular ion at equilibrium and can be calculated using the Nernst equation	19
5199318996	Nernst equation	E(ion)=62mV*(log[ion](outside)/[ion](inside))	20
5199336125	Gated ion channels	Open and close in response to stimuli	21
5199339400	Hyperpolarization	An increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential	22
5199345619	Graded potentials	Changes in polarization where the magnitude of the change varies with the strength of the stimulus.	23
5199355627	Voltage-gated	Na and K channels that respond to a change in membrane potential	24
5199361218	Action potential	A strong stimuli results in a massive change in membrane voltage	25
5199366294	Refractory period	After an action potential, a second action cannot be initiated during this period	26
5199374147	120m/s	The speed of an	27
5199392903	Myelin sheaths	Insulates axons and causes an action potential's speed to increase	28
5199412749	Oliodendrocytes and Schwann cells	The 2 types of glia cells that make myelin sheaths	29
5199418112	Nodes of Ranvier	Action potentials are formed only in gaps in the myelin sheath where voltage-gated Na+ channels are found	30
5200398373	Saltatory conduction	Action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier	31
5200415266	Synaptic vessicles	Where the preneuron synthesizes and packages the neurotransmitter	32
5200426024	Synaptic cleft	The gap of a synapse where neurotransmitters diffuse and are received by the postsynaptic cell	33
5200446728	Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)	Are depolarizations that bring the membrane potential toward threshold	34
5200456753	Inhbitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)	Are hyperpolarizations that move the membrane potential farther from threshold	35
5200468359	Temporal summation	When 2 EPSPs are produced in rapid succession	36
5200483245	Spatial summation	EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron add together	37
5200501398	Acetylcholine	A common neurotransmitter in vertebrates and invertebrates	38

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AP Language Unit 6 Vocab Flashcards

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5780808838	abject	(adj.) degraded; complete and unrelieved	0
5780810489	agnostic	(n.) one who believes that nothing is known about God (adj.) without faith	1
5780811878	complicity	(n.) involvement in the wrongdoing; being an accomplice	2
5780812984	derelict	(n.) someone or something that is neglected (adj.) left abandoned	3
5780814317	diatribe	(n.) a bitter and prolonged attack	4
5780815413	effigy	(n.) a crude image of a despised person	5
5780816626	equity	(n.) fair and equal treatment; the money value of a property above and beyond any mortgage or claim	6
5780818732	inane	(adj.) silly, empty of meaning	7
5780819793	indictment	(n.) the act of accusing; an accusation	8
5780820622	indubitable	(adj.) certain, undoubtable	9
5780821244	intermittent	(adj.) stopping and beginning again sporadic	10
5780822300	moot	(adj.) open to discussion and debate (v.) to bring up for discussion (n.) hypothetical law case	11
5780823909	motif	(n.) a principle idea, feature, theme, or element; a repeated or dominant figure in a design	12
5780825218	neophyte	(n.) a beginner, novice	13
5780825673	perspicacity	(n.) keenness in observing and understanding.	14
5780827053	plenary	(adj.) complete in all aspects or essentials; absolute	15
5780828314	surveillance	(n.) a watch kept over a person	16
5780829053	sylvan	(adj.) relating to forests	17
5780830509	testy	(adj.) easily irritated	18
5780831071	travesty	(n.) a grossly inferior imitation (v.) to imitate in a broad or burlesque fashion	19

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AP Biology Chapter 3 Flashcards

AP Biology Mader 11th ed. Chapter 3

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4786317629	ADP (adenosine diphosphate):	nucleotide with two phosphate groups that can accept another phosphate group and become ATP 56	0
4786317630	Amino acid:	organic molecule composed of an amino group and an acid group; covalently bonds to produce peptide molecules. 50	1
4786317631	ATP (adenosine triphosphate):	nucleotide with three phosphate groups. The breakdown of ATP into ADP + P makes energy available for energy-requiring processes in cells. 55	2
4786317632	Biomolecule:	organic molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats. 38	3
4786317633	Carbohydrate:	class of organic compounds that typically contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio; includes the monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. 41	4
4786317634	Cellulose:	a polysaccharide that is the major complex carbohydrate in plant cell walls, and chitin. 44	5
4786317635	Chaperone protein:	molecule that directs the folding of polypeptides. 53	6
4786317636	Chitin:	strong but flexible nitrogenous polysaccharides found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and in the cell walls of fungi 44	7
4786317637	Coenzyme:	non-protein organic molecule that aides the action of the enzymes to which it is loosely bound. 54	8
4786317638	Complementary base pairing:	hydrogen bonding between particular purines and pyrimidines; responsible for the structure of DNA, and some RNA, molecules. 55	9
4786317639	Dehydration reaction:	chemical reaction in which a water molecule is released during the formation of a covalent bond. 40	10
4786317640	Denatured:	loss of protein's or enzyme's normal shape so that it no longer functions; usually caused by a less than optimal pH and temperature. 53	11
4786317641	Deoxyribose:	pentose sugar found in DNA 42	12
4786317642	Disaccharide:	sugar that contains two monosaccharide units; e.g. maltose 42	13
4786317643	DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)	nucleic acid polymer produced from covalent bonding of nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar deoxyribose; the genetic material of nearly all organisms 54	14
4786317644	Enzyme:	organic catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds a reaction in cells due to its particular shape 41	15
4786317645	Fat:	organic molecule that contains glycerol and three fatty acids; energy storage molecule 46	16
4786317646	Fatty acid:	molecule that contains a hydrocarbon chain and ends with an acid group 46	17
4786317647	Fibrous protein:	a protein that has only a secondary structure; generally insoluble; includes collagens, elastins, and keratins 51	18
4786317648	Functional group:	specific cluster of atoms attached to the carbon skeleton of organic molecules that enters into reactions and behaves in a predictable way 39	19
4786317649	Globular protein:	most of the proteins in the body; soluble in water or salt solution; includes albumins, globulins, histones 52	20
4786317650	Glucose:	six-carbon monosaccharide; used as an energy source during cellular respiration and as a monomer of the structural polysaccharides. 42	21
4786317651	Glycerol:	three-carbon carbohydrate with three hydroxyl groups attached; a component of fats and oils 46	22
4786317652	Glycogen:	storage polysaccharide found in animals; composed of glucose molecules joined in a linear fashion but having numerous branches 43	23
4786317653	Hemoglobin (Hb):	iron-containing respiratory pigment occurring in vertebrate red blood cells and in the blood plasma of some invertebrates 49	24
4786317654	Hexose:	any monosaccharide that contains six carbons; examples are glucose and galactose 42	25
4786317655	Hydrolysis reaction:	splitting of a chemical bond by the addition of water, with the H+ going to one molecule and the OH- going to the other. 41	26
4786317656	Hydrophilic:	type of molecule, often polar, that interacts with water by dissolving in water and/or by forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules. "Water loving" 40	27
4786317657	Hydrophobic:	type of molecule, that is typically nonpolar, and therefore does not interact easily with water. "afraid of water" 40	28
4786317658	Inorganic chemistry:	branch of science that studies the chemical reactions and properties of all of the elements, except hydrogen and carbon 39	29
4786317659	Isomer:	molecules with the same molecular formula but different structure, and therefore a different shape. 40	30
4786317660	Lipid:	class of organic compounds that tends to be soluble in nonpolar solvents; includes fats and oils 45	31
4786317661	Monomer:	small molecule that is a subunit of a polymer -e.g., glucose is a monomer of starch 40	32
4786317662	Monosaccharide:	simple sugar; a carbohydrate that cannot be broken down by hydrolysis ---e.g., glucose; also any monomer of the polysaccharides 42	33
4786317663	Nucleic acid:	polymer of nucleotides; both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 54	34
4786317664	Nucleotide:	monomer of DNA and RNA consisting of a sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group 54	35
4786317665	Oil:	triglyceride, usually of plant origin, that is composed of glycerol and three fatty acids and is liquid in consistency due to many unsaturated bonds in the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids. 46	36
4786317666	Organic chemistry:	branch of science that deals with organic molecules including those that are unique to living things 38	37
4786317667	Organic molecule:	molecule that always contains carbon and hydrogen, and often contains oxygen as well; organic molecules are associated with living things. 38	38
4786317668	Pentose:	five-carbon monosaccharide. Examples are deoxyribose found in DNA and ribose found in RNA. 42	39
4786317669	Peptide:	two or more amino acids joined together by covalent bonding 50	40
4786317670	Peptide bond:	type of covalent bond that joins two amino acids 50	41
4786317671	Peptidoglycan:	polysaccharide that contains short chains of amino acids; foundin bacterial cell walls 44	42
4786317672	Phospholipid:	molecule that forms the bilayer of the cell's membranes; has a polar, hydrophilic head bonded to two nonpolar, hydrophobic tails. 46	43
4786317673	Polymer:	macromolecule consisting of a covalently bonded monomers; for example, a polypeptide is a polymer of monomers called amino acids. 40	44
4786317674	Polypeptide:	polymer of many amino acids linked by peptide bonds. 50	45
4786317675	Polysaccharide:	polymer made from carbohydrate monomers; the polysaccharides starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose monomers 41	46
4786317676	Prion:	infectious particle consisting of protein only and no nucleic acid 53	47
4786317677	Protein:	polymer of amino acids; often consisting of one or more polypeptides and having a complex three dimensional shape 49	48
4786317678	Ribose:	pentose sugar found in RNA 42	49
4786317679	RNA (ribonucleic acid):	nucleic acid produced from covalent bonding of nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar ribose; occurs in many forms, including: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA 54	50
4786317680	Saturated fatty acid:	fatty acid molecule that lacks double bonds between the carbons of its hydrocarbon chain. Th chain bears the maximum number of hydrogens possible. 46	51
4786317681	Starch:	storage polysaccharide found in plants that is composed of glucose molecules joined in a linear fashion with a few side chains 43	52
4786317682	Steroid:	type of lipid molecule having a complex of four carbon rings -e.g., cholesterol, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. 46	53
4786317683	Trans-fat:	unsaturated fatty acid chains in which the configuration of the carbon-carbon double bonds is such that the hydrogen atoms are across from each other, as opposed to being on the same side (cis) 45	54
4786317684	Triglyceride:	neutral fat composed of glycerol and three fatty acids; typically involved in energy storage 46	55
4786317685	Unsaturated fatty acid:	fatty acid molecule that contains double bonds between some carbons of its hydrocarbon chain; thus contains fewer hydrogens than a saturated hydrocarbon chain 46	56
4786317686	Wax:	sticky, solid, water-repellent lipid consisting of many long-chain fatty acids usually linked to long-chain alcohols 48	57

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AP Biology Biochemistry Unit 1 Questions Flashcards

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5907708682	monosaccharide	What is this molecule?	0
5907708683	disaccharide	What is this molecule?	1
5907708684	polysaccharide / carbohydrate	What are these molecules?	2
5907708685	fatty acid	What molecules are these?	3
5907708686	glycerol	What molecule is this?	4
5907708687	amino acid	What molecule is this?	5
5907708688	polypeptide / protein	What molecule are these?	6
5907708689	phospholipid / lipid	What molecule is this?	7
5907708690	triglyceride / lipid	What molecule is this?	8
5907708691	steroid / lipid	What molecule is this?	9
5907708692	amino acid	Monomer unit of a protein is...	10
5907708693	monosaccharide	Monomer unit of a carbohydrate is...	11
5907708694	3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol	Monomer units of a triglyceride are...	12
5907708695	short term energy storage in plants & animals, structure in plant cell walls or animal exoskeletons	Name TWO functions of carbohydrates in a living thing.	13
5907708696	Long term energy storage, hormone (cell signaling), form plasma membrane and organelle membrane barriers	Name TWO (or more) functions of lipids in living things.	14
5907708697	Catalyze chemical reactions, defend against disease, storage of amino acids, transport molecules across membranes, hormone (cell signaling), receptors on the surface of cell membranes, movement within cells or of larger body parts, structural (tip of nose, outer ear)	Name THREE (or more) functions of proteins in living things.	15
5907708698	Amine groups & carboxyl (acid) groups	What functional groups are found in ALL proteins?	16
5907708699	Carbonyl groups & hydroxyl groups	What functional groups are found in carbohydrates?	17
5907708700	Methyl groups: CH2 or CH3	What functional groups are found in lipids that make most lipids hydrophobic?	18
5907708701	glycosidic linkage	What is the name of bond between monosaccharides?	19
5907708702	peptide bond	What is the name of the bond between amino acids?	20
5907708703	ester linkage	What is the name of the bond between glycerol & three fatty acids?	21
5907708704	POLAR; amine group contains a NITROGEN atom which is a highly electronegative element	Is the amine group polar or non polar? Explain...	22
5907708705	POLAR; phosphate group contains OXYGEN atoms which are very electronegative elements	Is the phosphate group polar or non polar? Explain...	23
5907708706	POLAR: hydroxyl group contains an OXYGEN atom which is a very electronegative element	Is the hydroxyl group polar or non polar? Explain...	24
5907708707	POLAR: sulfhydryl group contains a SULFUR atom which is a very electronegative element	Is the sulfhydryl group polar or non polar? Explain	25
5907708708	DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS	Monomers are joined to each other during the process of...	26
5907708709	HYDROLYSIS	Polymers are broken apart into their monomer unit building blocks by the process of...	27

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AP Biology: Chapter 2 Flashcards

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8361498839	element	the basic form of matter that cannot be broken down	0
8361503272	compound	two or more different elements combined in a fixed ration	1
8361507353	atom	the smallest unit of an element that still has the properties of that element	2
8361512207	neutron	-no charge -found in the nucleus -mass of 1 amu	3
8361518250	protons	-positive charge -found in the nucleus -mass of 1 amu	4
8361524117	electrons	- negative charge -found outside the nucleus -little mass -potential energy increases as their distance from the nucleus increases -orbit the nucleus in energy levels	5
8361530923	atomic number	number of protons in the nucleus of an atom	6
8361536392	mass number	number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus	7
8361541403	isotope	an element that has a different mass than normal due to a change in the normal number of neutrons	8
8361572667	2	the first energy level contains how many electrons	9
8361572669	8	the second energy level contains how many electrons	10
8361577329	8	the third energy level contains how many electrons	11
8361583665	inert or unreactive	an element whose valence shell is complete is said to be what	12
8361591179	covalent bond	sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms	13
8361601215	non polar covalent bond	equal sharing of electrons	14
8361601216	polar covalent bond	unequal sharing of electrons	15
8361606936	ion	transfer of electrons between atoms	16
8361611490	ionic bond	attraction between two oppositely charged ions	17
8361615768	cation	positively charged ion (lost electron)	18
8361620189	anion	negatively charged ion (gained electron)	19
8361639554	polar covalent	this hogging of electrons results in which type of bond between oxygen and hydrogen within the water molecule	20
8361645598	hydrogen bonds	occur between two polar molecules or between different polar regions of one large macro molecule	21
8361654089	van der waals interactions	weak attractions that occur when atoms and molecules are very close together, may occur in regions of a single large molecule such as a protein	22
8361668172	shape	determines how molecules recognize and respond to one another	23
8361680660	reactants	starting materials are known as	24
8361685662	products	ending materials are known as	25
8361699979	organic chemistry	the study of carbon compounds	26
8361712344	isomers	molecules with same molecular formula but different structures, different chemical properties	27
8361721536	hydrocarbons	simplest C molecules; combinations of C and H	28
8361733741	functional groups	different elements added to organic molecules that change their properties	29
8361739052	hydroxyl	-OH alcohols ex-ethanol	30
8361746606	carbonyl	C=O O double bonded to C C=O end= aldehyde C=o middle= ketone	31
8361759623	carboxyl	-COOH compounds with COOH= acids fatty acids amino acids	32
8361768583	amino	-NH2	33
8361777637	Sulfhydryl	-SH S bonded to H	34
8361783401	Phosphate	-PO4 function is to transfer energy between organic molecules	35
8361796310	methyl	-CH3 not a reactive group, serves as a recognizable tag on biomolecules used in DNA methylation	36

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