| CourseNotes

AP1 Exam 4 Flashcards

6531804857	Characteristics & Functions of Nervous Tissue	Sensory Input \| Intergration \| Motor Output 1) Responsive 2) Long-lived, mostly amitotic 3) Conductive 4) Secretory	0
6531807676	Types of Neuroglia CNS (Specific Support Roles)	1) Astrocytes: control capillary permeability, control chemical enviornment around neurons, promote neuron growth and synapse formation, form scar tissue around damaged neurons 2) Microglia: type of macrophage 3) Ependymal cells: ciliated cells lining cavities of brain and spinal cord Makes the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 4) Oligodendrocytes - produce myelin sheaths (octopus shaped)	1
6532063863	Types of Neuroglia PNS (Specific Support Roles)	1) Satellite cells: surround cell bodies in ganglia-establish a neuron friendly environment 2) Schwann cells: form myelin sheath, regenerate peripheral nerve fibers	2
6531810768	Differences in Type (from the CNS to the PNS)	Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System: Bundles of axons and ganglia outside of CNS In CNS - clusters called nuclei In PNS - clusters called ganglia	3
6531813497	Divisions of the Nervous System	Afferent: Sensory - somatic and Visceral Efferent: Motor - CNS to muscles, glands (effectors) - somatic (voluntary), visceral (sympathetic & parasympathetic)	4
6531816101	Type of Neurons (structure based differences and where each is most likely to be found)	1) Multipolar - most neurons are this type 2) Bipolar - receptor cells (olfactory receptors) 3) Unipolar - mainly sensory in ganglia of PNS peripheral fiber has receptive ending, central fiber enters CNS (carry signals to spinal cord) 4) Anaxonic - dendrites only, quick communication and processing, brain, retina, adrenal medulla	5
6531819750	Membranes Surrounding the CNS	Dura Mater (Outer) [extends to S2] Arachnoid (Middle) [extends to S2] Pia Mater (Inner) [continues to posterior coccyx] = Meninges	6
6531822926	The Tracts (Fasciculi)	1.) Motor Tracts (Lateral Corticospinal) Sensory for movement and command from brain to spinal cord 2.) Sensory Tracts (Lateral & Anterior) Pain and Temperature, spinothalamic, from skin 3.) Sensory Tracts (Dorsal) light touch, deep pressure, proprioceptive senses [Fasciculus Gracilis] from sacral and lumbar body areas up to the brain [Fasciculus Cuneatus] from thoracic and cervical body areas up to the brain	7
6531824931	1st, 2nd, and 3rd Order Neurons (begin, end, & where specific tracts dessucate)	Ascending Pathways 1st order neurons from receptors to spinal cord or brain stem, synapse with 2nd order,(decussate here) transmits to cerebellum or thalamus 3rd order, from thalamus to somatosensory area cerebral cortex (Pain Receptors 3 steps)	8
6531826740	Major Plexuses (Sections of the body they cover)	1.) Cervical Plexus (Head, neck, shoulders) 2.) Brachial Plexus (Chest, shoulders, arms, hands) 3.) Lumbar Plexus (Back, adbomen, groin, thighs, knees, calves) 4.) Sacral Plexus (Pelvis, butt, genitals, thighs, calves, feet) 5.) Coccygeal Plexus (small region over coccyx)	9
6531833913	Structures found on the Brain (Gyri and Sulci)	Rostral (Front hemisphere) Caudal (Back) Cerebrum - interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement. Longitudinal Fissure Corpus Callosum Cerebellum - located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance. Brainstem - includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord (automatic functions) Diencephalon	10
6531833914	Sections of the Brain & How they are Connected	Prosencephalon [forebrain] - Cerebrum, cerebral, cortex, white matter, thalamus, hypothalamus, retina Mesencephalon [midbrain] - Brain Stem, Midbrain Rhombencephalon [hindbrain] - Pons, Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata	11
6531844727	Disorders & Diseases Concerning the Nervous Tissue, Brain, & Spinal Cord	Multiple Sclerosis Tay-Sachs disease Flaccid Paralysis Spastic Paralysis Paraplegia Quadriplegia Poliomyelitis Spina Bifida Cystica Meningitis - Inflammation of Meninges Parkinson - degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons in substantia nigra	12
6531853650	Neurotransmitters discussed in class (and their functions)	ACh - a chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells	13
6544242791	Sympathetic System	prepares the body for fight or flight reactions. Action of this system results in accelerated heart rate, increased blood pressure and blood flow away from the periphery and digestive system toward the brain, heart and skeletal muscles. It also causes adrenaline to be released, temporarily increasing physical strength.	14
6544245324	Parasympathetic System	brings the body back to a state of equilibrium. It slows heart rate and decreases the release of hormones into the blood stream. The activity of the parasympathetic system causes more localized reactions than does the sympathetic system as much of its output is to specific organs.	15
6545275317	Brain v. Spine	White Matter in, Gray out (Brain) Gray Matter in, White out (Spine)	16

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AP Psychology - History and Approaches Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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5555059731	Empiricism	The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should therefore rely on observation and experimentation.	0
5555059732	Structuralism	Developed by Edward Bradford Titchener, it focused on self-reflection and introspection. Highly unreliable.	1
5555059733	Functionalism	A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.	2
5555059735	Behaviorism	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).	3
5555059736	Humanistic Psychology	The historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.	4
5555059738	Psychology	The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.	5
5555059739	Nature-Nurture Issue	The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of the two.	6
5555059743	Biological Perspective	A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.	7
5555059744	Evolutionary Perspective	The study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.	8
5555059745	Psychodynamic Perspective	A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.	9
5555059746	Behavioral Perspective	Method of changing abnormal behavior thru systematic program based on the learning principles of CLASSICAL conditioning, OPERANT Conditioning, or OBSERVATIONAL Learning.	10
5555059747	Cognitive Perspective	The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.	11
5555059748	Social-Cultural Perspective	The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.	12
5555059750	Basic Research	One of the two main types of research, pure research that aims to confirm an existing theory or to learn more about a concept or phenomenon	13
5555059751	Developmental Psychology	A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.	14
5555059752	Educational Psychology	The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.	15
5555059753	Personality Psychology	The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.	16
5555059754	Social Psychology	The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.	17
5555059755	Applied Research	One of the two main types of research, conducted specifically to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life.	18
5555059756	Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology	The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.	19
5555059757	Counseling Psychology	A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.	20
5555059758	Clinical Psychology	A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.	21
5555059759	Psychiatry	A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.	22

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AP Government Chapter 2 Flashcards

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5004762997	Unalienable	A human right based on nature or God	0
5004762998	Articles of Confederation	The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 177 and enacted in 1781. The Articles established a national legislature, the Continental Congress, but most authority rested with state legislatures.	1
5004762999	Constitutional Convention	A meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 that produced a new constitution	2
5004763000	Shays' Rebellion	a series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shay to block foreclosure proceedings	3
5004763001	Virginia Plan	Proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each sate in congress in proportion to that state's population.	4
5004763002	New Jersey Plan	Proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the state's population.	5
5004763003	Great Compromise	Plan to have a popularly elected House based on state population and a state-selected Senate, with two members for each state	6
5004763004	Judicial Review	The power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional	7
5004763005	Federalism	Government authority shared by national and local governments	8
5004763006	Enumerated Powers	Powers given to the national government alone	9
5004763007	Reserved Powers	Powers given to the state governments	10
5004763008	Concurrent Powers	Powers shared by the national and state governments	11
5004763009	Checks and Balances	Features of the Constitution that limit government's power by requiring that power be balanced among the different governmental institutions. These institutions continually constrain one another's activities.	12
5004763010	Separation of Powers	a feature of the constitution that requires each of the three branches of government-executive, legislative, judicial-to be relatively independent of others so that one cannot control the others. Power is shared among these three institutions	13
5004763011	Faction	Interest groups arising from the unequal distribution of property or wealth	14
5004763012	Federalists	Supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time states were contemplating its adoption. Those who favor a stronger national government and want to ratify the constitution.	15
5004763013	Antifederalists	Opponents of the U.S. Constitution. Those who favor a weaker national government and believe the constitution needs individual rights.	16
5004763014	Block Grant	A grant in-in-aid for a broadly define policy area.	17
5004763015	Federal Mandates	Mandatory conditions that are attached to laws in which the borrower must comply to.	18
5004763016	Category Grant	A grant-in-aid for a specific policy.	19
5004763017	Bicameral	legislature comprising of a two house system.	20
5004763018	Selective Incorporation	States cant make laws that take away constitutional rights.	21
5004763019	Welfare Reform Act of 1996	This reduced the number of individual who rely on government assistance and help them become self-sufficient.	22
5004766375	Constitution	a nation's basic law. it creates political institutions, assigns or divides power in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens.	23
5004784896	Declaration of Independence	the document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.	24
5004809731	Natural Rights	rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments which include life, liberty, and property.	25
5004817629	Consent of governed	the idea that government consent derives its authority to sanction of the people	26
5004834760	U.S Consitituion	the document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets form the institutional structure of the U.S government and the tasks these institutions performed. Replaced the AOC	27
5004845288	Connecticut Compromise	the compromise reached at the constitutional convention that established 2 houses in congress.	28
5004863156	Writ of habeas corpus	a court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.	29
5004871641	Republic	a form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws	30
5004882912	Federalists Papers	a collection of 85 articles written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton under the name of "Publics" to defend the constitution in detail	31
5004895678	Bill of Rights	the first 10 amendments to the U.S constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalists concerns. The amendments define basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, press, and guarantee defendant's rights.	32
5004915695	Equal Rights Amendment	a constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 stating that the "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state an account of sex." The amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from 3/4s of the state legislatures.	33
5004943333	Marbury v. Madison	The 1803 case in which chief justice John Marshall and his associates 1st asserted the right of the supreme court to determine the meaning of the U.S constitution. The decisions established the court's power of musical review over acts of Congress in this case the Judiciary Act 1789.	34
5004960879	Judicial Review	the power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and, by implication, the executive are in accord with the U.S Constitution. Established by John marshall and his associates in Marybury vs. Madison	35
5004977834	Dual Federalism	strictly divided powers under dual states have more power. little. very little federal regulation. (Layer cake)	36
5004987417	Cooperate Federalism	state and federal government come together (marble cake)	37
5004995342	Commerce Clause	"to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes"	38
5014622740	Limited Government	the idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens	39
5014650487	Legislator	an individual who proposes, draws up and enacts laws. He is a member of a legislative body, either elected or appointed. American congressmen and members of the British and Indian parliaments are examples	40
5014654898	Legislature	a deliberative group, usually a government group, either elected or appointed, made up of individuals who have the responsibility of writing, passing and appealing laws. City councils, county boards, parliaments and senates are all examples	41
5014772802	Proposing an amendment	2/3 vote in each house of congress or by a national convention called by Congress at the request of 2/3 of the state legislatures.	42
5014777821	Ratifying an amendment	Legislatures of 3/4 of the states or special state conventions called in 3/4 of the states.	43
5015886312			44

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Unit 2 AP Government Flashcards

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5157717637	Exit poll	public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners w speed and precision	0
5157719519	Gender gap	regular pattern in which women are more likely to select democratic and tend to be less conservative than men	1
5157726403	Margin of error	(in polls and surveys:) an amount (usually small) that is allowed for in case of miscalculation or change of circumstances.	2
5157737548	Political participation	all activities used by citizens to influence political leaders of policy	3
5157741802	Political Socialization	process through which individuals in society acquire political attitudes, views, knowledge based on inputs from family, schools, media etc.	4
5157741803	Public opinion	distribution of population's beliefs about politics and policy issues	5
5158234352	reapportionment	process of reallocating seats in the House of Rep. every 10 years based on census	6
5158392423	gerrymandering	drawing district boundaries to benefit a party or candidate	7
5157744780	Random Sample	key technique used by surveys- everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample	8
5157744779	Sampling error	level of confidence in findings of public opinion poll - more people and larger variety polled = more accurate results	9
5157747850	characteristics of a valid public opinion poll?	- Random, Representative Sample - unbiased	10
5157747860	How do public opinion polls influence members of Congress?	- they can know the changing public opinion about policy, learn what their constituents believe and be swayed to vote for the people they represent -critics say that it makes them follow rather than lead	11
5157750895	Identify the key demographic characteristics of liberals and conservatives.	Liberals: often young people, minorities often tend to be more liberal, women more than men (gender gap) Conservatives: religious, tend to be white and male,	12
5157752958	Blanket Primary	-In a blanket primary, voters may pick one candidate for each office without regard to party lines Ex: a voter might select a Democratic candidate for governor and a Republican candidate for senator -The blanket primary was ruled unconstitutional in 2000 by the US Supreme Court in California Democratic Party v. Jones because it required political parties to associate with candidates they did not endorse	13
5157755011	Closed Primary	A primary election in which voters must first declare to which party they belong	14
5157755012	Critical Election	an electoral "earthquake" where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.	15
5157757467	Linkage Institution	political means by which people's concerns become political issues on the policy agenda - link to Gov In US: linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups and the media	16
5158503873	coalition	a group of people with a common interest on which every political party depends	17
5157757468	Open Primary	Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests	18
5157759631	Party Dealignment	gradual disengagement of people from the parties, as seen in party by shrinking party identification -many identify as independents	19
5157759632	Party Polarization	an individuals stance on a given issue policy or person is more likely to be strictly defined by their identification w a party	20
5157762689	Party Realignment	looking at key issues that separate dem and rep and how they change, leads to critical election	21
5157762690	Political Party	team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in duly constituted election	22
5157764801	Single-member district	electoral district that returns one office holder to a body w multiple members	23
5157764802	Ticket-splitting	voting for one party for one office and another party for a different office -common american voting behavior	24
5157767442	Winner-take-all	electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who came in 1st in their constituencies winner-take-all system in the electoral college -Electors are pledged to the pres. candidate chosen by their respective national convention. -The people choose electors. -If one group of electors wins plurality, all electors vote for the that group's pres. candidate. -If winning slate of electors are Republican, then all electors vote Republican.	25
5158459602	Describe Party Eras in History	1796-1824: first party system, federalists and anti federalists 1828-1856: Democrats vs Whigs 1860-1928: Republican Eras 1932-1964: New Deal Coalition 1968-present: southern realignment, (conservative southerners went to republican party) and divided party government	26
5157772478	What obstacles exist for third party candidates? What contributions do they make to our political system?	-winner take all system puts them at a disadvantage -excluded from debates - hard to raise money especially without large party support -bring awareness to other issues and can make candidates acknowledge those issues	27
5157773966	Explain the decline of political parties in the electoral process and growing influence they have in the policy making process.	Many people now identify as independents- party dealignment. Political parties divide the house and the senate- create divides on policy. policy making is increasingly partisan	28
5157779951	Why do we have a two party system? How are parties organized in United States?	1. the historical foundations of the system 2. the self-perpetuation of the parties 3. the commonality of views among Americans 4. the winner-takes-all electoral system 5. state and federal laws favor a two-party system	29
5157835224	501 (c) groups	groups that allows people to spend money on campaigns and can raise Anonymous donations. allows people to create nonprofit group so they can stay secret	30
5157835225	527 groups	nonprofit groups, can't coordinate w the candidate	31
5157837560	Voter/ Political Apathy	indifference on the part of any citizen w regard to their attitude toward political activities	32
5157837561	Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)	banned soft money, banned contributions from corporations and unions	33
5157840540	Buckley v. Valeo	said it was okay to limit outside contributions, but can't limit personal contributions	34
5157844310	Campaign contributions	donations made directly to a candidate, must be reported to FEC	35
5157844311	Caucus	system for selecting delegates used in about 12 states in which voters must attend an open meeting to express presidential preferences	36
5157846399	Citizens United v. FEC	said corporations and unions could give unlimited amount of money to super PACs as long as they were independent from the candidate. the money had to be independent and disclosed to the FEC	37
5157849652	Electoral College	a body of people representing the states of the US, who formally cast votes for the election of the president and vice president.	38
5157879646	How does the federal government regulate political campaigns?	-limits amount of donations from individuals and pacs to candidates and parties - candidates and PACS must disclose donors and amounts	39
5157849653	Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)	response to watergate, limited how much one could donate to candidates and how much candidates could spend. required disclosure of contributions	40
5157851147	Federal Election Commission	created because of the FECA; regulatory agency to enforce campaign laws	41
5157851148	Hard/Soft money	hard: individual contribution soft: money spent by political parties to sponsee ads/endorse candidates. political parties get the money from big corporations, no limit to the money	42
5157853363	Independent expenditures	expenses on behalf of political message that are made by groups that are uncoordinated w campaign	43
5157855602	Issues ads	communications intended to bring awareness to a problem	44
5157855603	McConnell v. FEC	upheld BCRA, exempted nonprofits from restrictions	45
5157857760	Midterm election	people can elect their reps in the middle of term of the executive, less people vote in these	46
5157857761	Motor Voter Act	requires states to permit people to register to vote when they apply for a drivers license	47
5157860017	National Party Convention	supreme power w in each of the parties, meets every 4 years to nominate presidential candidate and write party platform	48
5157860018	Photo Identification laws	to prevent voter fraud, have to show id to vote	49
5157862044	Political Action Committees (PACs)	group that provides another way of raising money, must disclose donors. you can now give money directly to candidate and give money to a PAC to give to a candidate	50
5157862045	Political efficacy	the belief that ones political participation really matters	51
5157864484	Super PACs	group that can receive unlimited donations, have to disclose donors, has to be independent from campaign, can put out ads as long as operated independently	52
5157864485	Define Superdelegates- How does the use of superdelegates increase the role of party leaders in the nomination process?	high ranking official in the party that is automatically in the electorate, can vote how ever they want to vote.	53
5157867213	Swing/battleground states	states that could go either democrat or republican, candidates spend a lot to of their time and money here	54
5157867214	Voter registration	system adapted by states that requires voters to register prior to voting	55
5157870780	What are party delegates and what role do they play in a presidential election?	People chosen by their parties - get sent to represent peoples votes for Pres candidate at party convention	56
5157873533	Compare the direct primary and convention systems for electing the president.	Direct primary chooses delegates for a candidate- conventions cast overall party vote and nominates candidate	57
5157876317	Explain why a candidate's strategy to win the nomination is often different from the strategy developed to win the general election.	-in primaries, the election is about winning party support - appeal to party base	58
5157876318	What role does the media play in campaign process?	-debates - sensationalizes stories and scandals -campaign ads -	59
5157879647	How are voting registration requirements established? How do these requirements affect voter turnout?	-States determine voter registration	60
5157883260	Describe the Electoral College system. Why did the framers choose this method for electing the President?	Why did the framers chose this method of electing the president The framers created the Electoral College, because they didn't trust the people to make electoral decisions on their own. They wanted the president chosen by what they thought of as "enlightened statesmen".	61
5163226933	How does the winner-take-all system affect how a candidate runs his or her campaign? How does the winner-take-all system hinder third party candidates?	Candidates end up spending most money and campaigning in the swing states winner-take-all system, the party with the most votes gets ALL the electoral votes. Third party candidates would not benefit in this system because they do not have much support	62
5157885158	Closed shop	form of union security agreement under which employer agrees to hire only members that are in and stay in a union	63
5157885159	Federalist 10 main ideas?	factions can't be prevented, can't get rid of them bc not everyone is going to have the same views and can't destroy liberty	64
5157886905	Factions	political parties and interest groups	65
5157886906	Elitism	upper class elite hold most power	66
5157886907	Interest Groups	providenplace for people to pursue more specific views, connects us w govt, influence policy	67
5157889365	Iron Triangle	doesn't benefit the people, between interest groups, congress, and the executive; work to benefit each other	68
5157890703	Issue network	less rigid version of iron triangle, interest groups unite to promote single issue	69
5157890704	Litigation	lawsuits, going to courts to get something changed	70
5157892346	Lobbying	communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his behalf in hopes of influencing congressman's decision	71
5157892347	Revolving door	leave govt and go work directly for an interest group that you helped	72
5157892723	Pluralism	many groups w different views are in politics and the complete and counteract eachother	73
5157895798	Compare and contrast the theories of pluralism, elitism, and hyperpluralism.	Pluralism: interest groups bring representation to all, many groups competing makes a fair and balanced political marketplace Elitism: belief that only wealthy elite hold power in government Hyperpluralism: believes interest groups have so much influence, that government seeks to please all leads to weakened/ contradictory policy	74
5157895799	How do interest groups attempt to influence the judicial branch? Be sure to include the judicial nomination process	-file amicus curae briefs - bring lawsuits to the courts -	75
5157897684	What Constitutional provision(s) protect the rights of interest groups?	first amendment - freedom of speech, freedom to assemble	76
5157897685	What are the four basic strategies that interest groups use to try to shape policy? Explain each strategy and the benefits/drawbacks of each one.	1) Lobbying -seeks to influence legislation and policy making, give favors or donations to congressmen 2) Campaign Contributions (via PACs) Give contributions to candidates so they will push that interest groups agenda 3) Litigation -bring lawsuits to court, 4) Grassroots Mobilization -get people passionate and actively voicing their opinion to representatives, protests etc. -free and can be very effective	77
5157900721	What is the difference between interest groups and political parties? How do interest groups support the goals of political parties?	Interest Groups are more narrow focused. Parties seek to elect their own candidates to office while interest groups do not, interest groups seek policy.	78
5157900722	How does the media and pluralism limit interest group influence?	-Pluralism: Since there are so many groups competing, no one group will necessarily be bigger than the other and balance out other groups -Media	79
5157902673	How do interest groups try to influence the electoral process?	advocate for certain candidates, give large donations to candidates that support their interests	80
5157902674	Agenda setting	power of the media to tell the public what subjects and issues to think about; media influences us and decides what we care about	81
5157902675	Horse race journalism	talk more about negative aspects of campaigns, fail to provide an accurate/fair reflection of campaigns	82
5157905592	Federal Communications Commission	regulate the use of airways, independent regulatory body	83
5157915327	How does the government regulate the news media?	FCC	84
5157905593	Issue framing	the way that the media organizes a story to show a certain POV	85
5157907090	Media bias	reflects little explicit ideological bias, bias to stories that draw a large audience, tv biased to stories that generate good pics	86
5157907091	Media conglomerate	company that owns large numbers of companies in various mass media; strive for policies that facilitate their control of markets	87
5157907092	Objective journalism	no opinion, fair	88
5157909580	Opinion journalism	opinionated	89
5157909581	Policy Agenda	issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actually involved in politics; things we care about that candidates talk about, we have influence over this	90
5157911921	Why does the President have an advantage over Congress in gaining media attention?	white house press corps - direct accessto reporters, President is easier to identify and famous	91
5157911922	Describe the influence of the media on the electoral process.	Wide media coverage on two parties. Media can blow up a damaging news story about a candidate	92
5157914509	How does the news media engage in agenda setting?	The policy agenda is greatly influenced by the news media. By choosing what issue to cover, the news media affects which issues the voters think are important, which, in turn, influences policy agenda. For instance, the media's heavy coverage of the current immigration debates has caused this to be one of the top priorities on the government's policy agenda.	93

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AP Psychology Unit 2 Flashcards

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6530773384	Neuron	Transmits neurons Dendrites, cell body/soma, myelin sheath, axon, terminal buttons, terminal branches of axon, ranviers	0
6532424109	Inter Neurons	Take information between neurons	1
6532424110	Afferent Neurons	Sensory Take information at the brain	2
6532430446	Efferent Neurons	Motor Take information as it exists the brain	3
6532432207	Dendrites	Receive messages from other cells Like the ears of the cell	4
6530773385	Cell Body/Soma	The cells life support center Does normal cell stuff	5
6532433793	Terminal Branches of Axon	Form junctions with others	6
6532433794	Axon	Passes messages away from the cell body to other neuron, muscles, or glands	7
6532436156	Terminal Buttons	They are the mouths of the cell	8
6532438786	Myelin Sheath	Speeds up signal Covers the axon of some neurons Helps speed neural impulses	9
6532486476	Ranvier	Space between myelin	10
6532502985	Some Types of Neurotransmitters	Acetycholine: lack of causes alzheimers; found within muscles Dopamine: controls learning, emotion, and movement; lack of causes parkinsons; too much causes schizophrenina Serotonin: involves mood, hunger, and sleep; too much causes depression	11
6532602475	Synapse		12
6532649620	Vesicles	Little bubbles that hold neurotransmitters	13
6532651418	Reuptake	Terminal button collects unused neurotransmitters to use again later	14
6532669238	Agonist	Increase the amount of a specific neurotransmitter Not about increased energy	15
6532669239	Antagonist	Decreases the amount of neurotransmitters Decreases the effect of the neurotransmitter	16
6532685273	Neurotransmitter	Signal that travels between one neuron to the next They are chemical	17
6532702557	How Signals Travel Through a Neuron	Neurons need to know when to replace neurotransmitters When they get a message they need to send on, they generate an action potential The action potential is an electrical signal that travels down the axon	18
6532711903	Threshold	Not all incoming signals are strong enough to create an action potential Must be strong enough to reach threshold Called an all or none response	19
6532722218	Action Potential	Electrical charge inside a neuron Resting state---stimulus(when dendrites collect neurotransmitters from other neurons)---sodium enters the neuron---action potential(release neurotransmitters)---potassium exits the neuron(repelled by sodium)---refractory period(restore) Signals that travel within(inside a single neuron) a neuron are electrical	20
6532736161	Neuron At Rest	A resting potential K+=potassium Na+=sodium Like a potato chip, salty(Na) on the outside and potato(K) on the inside Reminder: electrical charges want opposite charges L=+ R=-	21
6533756243	Refractory Period	A short time when the cell cannot be active Sodium came inside the cell, potassium left the cell so they must switch back before the cell can be active again	22
6534322544	Brain Structure	Limbic stystem: amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus Brainstem: reticular formation, medula, spinal cord Cerebal cortex, cerebellum, thalamus, corpus collosum	23
6534318666	Limbic System	Amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus	24
6534315887	Amygdala	Part of limbic system Neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion Emotional center	25
6534315888	Hippocampus	Part of limbic system A structure in the limbic system linked to memory	26
6534320527	Hypothalamus	Part of limbic system Controls maintenance functions such as eating Helps govern endocrine system Linked to emotion/reward Internal clock	27
6546799587	Brainstem	Reticular formation Medulla Spinal cord	28
6546806057	Reticular Formation	Part of brainstem Maintains consciousness and awakenness Helps control arousal	29
6546812800	Medulla	Part of brainstem Controls heartbeat and breathing	30
6546817315	Spinal Cord	Part of brainstem Pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from the brain Controls simple reflexes	31
6546823880	Corpus Callosum	Axon fibers connecting 2 cerebral hemispheres Sometimes severed to help control severe seizures, the signal for the seizure do not continue if it is severed	32
6546823881	Thalamus	Relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex	33
6546824512	Cerebellum	Coordinates voluntary movement and balance	34
6546824513	Pituitary	Master endocrine system Produces all of the bodies hormones	35
6546843214	Cerebral Cortex	Ultimate control and information processing center	36
6546844759	Evolutionary Perspective	Desire to survive and reproduce	37
6546847305	Sensory Pathways	Vision/hearing is processed in a series of locations	38
6546853548	Association Areas	More intelligent animals have increased uncommitted or association areas of the cortex	39
6546881634	Lobes of the Brain	Frontal lobe Occipetal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe	40
6546886079	Frontal Lobe	High level functions Motor system Problem solving	41
6546910900	Occipital Lobe	Visual input is processed Vision	42
6546910910	Parietal Lobe	Touch Integrating other senses Main sensory lobe View something ad 1 experience	43
6546911404	Temporal Lobe	Audition Hearing	44
6546922115	Sensory Cortex	Touch Inner barrier of parietal lobe	45
6546922867	Motor Cortex	Movement Inner barrier of frontal lobe	46
6546936436	Pop Psychology	Like pseudoscience Often begins with a real finding/truth that is then changed in some way to become either over simplified or entirely untrue	47
6546937622	Right Brain/Left Brain	Incorrect Each hemisphere has specific characterisitcs	48
6547041963	Contralateral Organization	The brain is organized contralaterally The left side controls and receives input from the right side and vice versa	49
6547042765	Hemispheric Specialization	Some functions occur only in or primarily in one side Left side: speech(especially for right handed people) Right side: spatial tasks and recognizing faces	50
6547043351	Split Brain	Information that is in the left doesn't travel to the right (vice versa) Corpus callosum is separated Left hand can draw a separate shape than the right hand	51
6547044080	Broca's Aphasia	Inability to produce language Can't talk or gesture, any type of language Left hemisphere frontal lobe motor cortex damage	52
6547044914	Wernicke's Aphasia	Inability to understand language Left hemisphere frontal lobe Can talk but it is gibberish	53
6547060975	Phineas Gage	His social behavior changed after an accident to his frontal lobe His intelligence did not change but he went from being responsible/likeable to being irresponsible/mean Over time he got better due to plasticity	54
6547061325	Endocrine System	The body's slow chemical communication system Set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream	55
6547061326	Hormones	Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands that are produced in one tissue and affect another	56
6547061778	Adrenal Glands	A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys Secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and non epinephrine (non adrenaline), which helps to arouse the body in times of stress	57
6547061779	Pituitary Gland	Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands	58
6547068061	EEG: Electroencephalography	Measures electrical signal in brain Frequently used during sleep Neurons discharge an electrical charge, the EEG reads this Simplest, cheapest, easier to do Used to diagnose sleep disorders	59
6547071015	MEG: Magnetoencephalography	Every electric field (as detected by EEG) also has a magnetic field More neurons firing=larger magnetic field	60
6547071016	PET	Have subjects perform 2 tasks Compare the activation between the 2 tasks Called subtraction analysis Measures blood flow Injected with a radioactive sugar More blood flows to neurons who are overworking 3-D picture of the full brain	61
6547071911	FMRI	Uses very strong magnets to detect bloodflow Similar to PET Normal MRI then the study(color that specifically tells you something) MRI+color	62
6547071912	TMS	Uses a wand to send pulses through the skull and target area Send strong short pulses to excite the area targeted or send weaker longer pulses to inhibit the area targeted	63
6547072481	Single Cell Recordings	Used extensively in animal studies A micro electrode is inserted into brain tissue and recordings of action potential can be made from nearby neurons, ideally a single neuron Not used on humans	64
6547072829	Central Nervous System	The brain and spinal cord are part of this system	65
6547074179	The Brain	Creates our thoughts Organizes our memories	66
6547074197	The Spinal Cord	Extends from the brain stem to the lower back Responsible for reflexes Connects brain to body	67
6547073206	Peripheral Nervous System	It is located outside the central nervous system Everything but brain/spinal cord Nerves Autonomic system Somatic system	68
6547075018	Autonomic System	Doesn't require you to think about it Automatic Parasympathetic system Sympathetic system	69
6547075811	Parasympathetic System	In charge most of the time Keeps everything balanced Restores the body's energy reserves	70
6547076468	Sympathetic System	Makes body race Suppresses digestion Increases heart and breathing rate Acts during times of stress	71
6547076469	Somatic System	Voluntary movements	72
6547077575	Nature	Biological influences	73
6547078987	Nurture	Environmental influences	74
6549359924	Clark and Hatfield 1978	Random strangers, "I have been noticing you around campus and I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to be with me tonight?" Women=0% Men=75%	75
6549362602	Gender Differences Biology	Testosterone responsible for aggressive behavior Girls who are exposed to too much in the womb become like the case of Brenda(John or Joan)	76
6563991847	Men Gender Differences	40% more muscle Die 5 years younger More commit suicide More autism 9 times more likely to murder Suffer from male answer syndrome, always want to give you an answer	77
6563998224	Women Gender Differences	70% more fat Express emotions freely More depression/anxiety More religious More eating disorders(10x) More social connections More attempts to suicide	78
6564004096	Women Brain	Larger area in frontal lobe for verbal fluency	79
6564004097	Men Brain	Larger area in parietal lobe for space perception	80
6551191051	Animal Studies	Nature/Biology - Belyaev and Trut, tame foxes for 40 years using selective breeding Nurture/Environment - Kolb and Whishaw, impoverished rats, enriched environment led to brain cells that connect to more neurons	81
6551186188	Brief Tangent	Siblings get 1/2 of their genes from mom and 1/2 from dad Regular siblings share about 1/2 of genetic material Fraternal twins:50% but same womb Identical twins:100%	82
6551186187	Twin Studies	Twins are raised in same environment, nature/nurture is similar because the share DNA and environment Some scientists argue that their similarities are a coincidence	83
6551193785	Nurture Arguments	Adopted infants- fewer problems than infants whose mother's changed their minds Kids usually get values from parents Cultural norms- North Americans vs. Mexicans and personal space	84
6551195623	Heritability Index	How much of the differences between use are due to what we inherit(genes/nature) Group differences, not how much you as an individual inherit	85
6551195624	Determine Heritability	If the differences between people can be accounted for by mostly nature there is high irritability If the differences between people can be accounted for by mostly nurture there is low heritability	86
6551203640	Endocrine System Order	Hypothalamus---pituitary---adrenal glands---adrenaline---heart	87
6551208760	Nervous System Order	Spinal cord---efferent neuron---motor organ	88
6551211246	Afferent Neuron Order	Neurotransmitter---synapse---receptor site---dendrite---soma---axon---nodes of ranvier---terminal buttons---vesicles	89

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AP Vocabulary List 10 Flashcards

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5722715515	ambulatory	capable of walking	0
5722715516	brazen	acting or done in a shocking way without shame or embarrassment	1
5722719484	churlish	boorish; rude; difficult to work with	2
5722719485	diffident	lacking confidence on one's own ability, worth, or fitness; timid; shy	3
5722719486	ennui	a feeling of utter weariness and discontent resulting from satiety or lack of interest; boredom	4
5722722441	inscrutable	incapable of being investigated, analyzed, or scrutinized; impenetrable	5
5722722442	prognosticate	to forecast or predict from present indications or signs; prophecy	6
5722725215	schism	division or disunion, especially into mutually opposed parties	7
5722725216	sedition	incitement of discontent or rebellion against a government	8
5722728140	wizen	to wither; shrivel; dry up	9

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#5 Learning (AP Psychology) Flashcards

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5902596610	Ivan Pavlov	Contribution: developed the theory of "classical conditioning" while working with dogs Significance: Father of Classical Conditioning	0
5902596611	Classical Conditioning	Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are paired together UCS = UCR; NS + UCS = UCR; & CS = CR	1
5902596612	Unconditioned Stimulus	Part of Classical Conditioning It is the stimulus that triggers a natural reflexive response. Pavlov's Dogs: "Meat" Little Albert: "Loud noise"	2
5902596613	Conditioned Stimulus	Part of Classical Conditioning It initially has no effect but after conditioning, it triggers a natural reflexive response. Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Bell" Little Albert: "White Mouse"	3
5902596614	Extinction	Classical Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because CS no longer paired with the UCS Operant Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished	4
5902596615	Spontaneous Recovery	Classical Conditioning: When a previous CR returns after it has been extinguished Operant Conditioning: Occurs when a response begins again after extinction	5
5902596616	Stimulus Generalization	Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are different. (Example: Little Albert being afraid of any thing that is white and furry) Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was NOT learned (Example: Not cursing at home or at school)	6
5902596617	Stimulus Discrimination	Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are the same (Example: Little Albert being afraid of a white mouse) Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was learned (Example: Cursing only at home because it is acceptable but not at school)	7
5902596618	Higher Order Conditioning	When the first CS is paired with a second CS The second CS is presented briefly before the first CS	8
5902596619	Taste Aversions	Psychologist: Garcia Defined: If you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink. Significance: Violates the acquisition principles of classical conditioning	9
5902596620	Operant conditioning	Defined: Learning is based on the association of one's behavior and its consequences. Consequences are reinforced or punished Example: You choose to break curfew based on the consequences	10
5902596621	Law of Effect	Psychologist: Edward Thorndike Defined: if a behavior results in a satisfying consequence, it will likely be repeated whereas; if a behavior results in a unsatisfying consequence, it will NOT likely be repeated Example: If you complement your mother and she lets you stay out past curfew, you will complement her again	11
5902596622	B.F. Skinner	Contributions: Invented the Operant chamber, aka his ________ box, to use in his research of animal learning. Significance: Father & Developer of Operant Conditioing	12
5902596623	Positive Reinforcement	Part of Operant Conditioning Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again Example: Receiving $5 for every "A" in high school	13
5902596624	Negative Reinforcement	Part of Operant Conditioning Increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing a negative stimuli Example: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache	14
5902596625	Positive Punishment	Part of Operant Conditioning Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again Example: Spanking and yelling	15
5902596626	Negative Punishment	Part of Operant Conditioning Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again Example: Grounding	16
5902596627	Shaping	Part of Operant Conditioning Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desird behavior to teach a new behavior	17
5902596628	Primary Reinforcers	Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing.	18
5902596629	Secondary Reinforcers	Defined: Reinforcers that are rewarding because we learned that are reinforcing. Example: praise, money, the chance to play video games.	19
5902596630	Fixed-Ratio Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: Being paid for every 10 pizzas made	20
5902596631	Variable-Ratio Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a varying number of responses. Example: playing a slot machine	21
5902596632	Fixed-Interval Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed Example: cramming for an exam	22
5902596633	Variable-Interval Schedule	Defined: schedule of reinforcement after varying amounts of time Example: pop (surprise) quizzes in class	23
5902596634	Instinctive Drift	Defined: when animals revert to instinctive behaviors rather than the operantly conditioned behaviors Examples: Rats will not walk backward, chickens won't hit a ball and run to first base, and pigs won't put wooden dollars into a piggy bank	24
5902596635	Observational Learning	Defined: learn by watching others Example: BoBo Doll Study	25
5902596636	Latent Learning	Defined: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Example: Tolman's rats would only complete the maze if there was cheese for them at the end of the maze	26
5902596637	Insight Learning	Defined: suddenly knowing the solution to the problem Example: When taking a test and the previous answer comes to you without effort	27
5902596638	Acquisition of Classical Conditioning	Frequency: the more often the CS and the US are paired together Timing: the CS is presented a half a second before the US	28
5902596639	Biological Preparedness	Defined: humans and animals have predisposed fears that help us survive Examples; Phobia of heights keeps us away from danger	29
5902596640	Unconditioned Response	Part of Classical Conditioning It is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the stimulus Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Meat" Little Albert: "Screaming at the Loud Noise"	30
5902596641	Associative Learning	Defined: learn by putting together two events Example: Expect to hear thunder after viewing lightening	31
5902596642	Habituation	Defined: An organisms decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it Example: Your parents yell at you a lot and eventually you tune out their yelling	32
5902596643	Watson	Contribution: applies Classical Conditioning to Humans through the "Little Albert" Experiment Significance: Creates "Behaviorism" Theory	33
5902596644	Thorndike	Contribution: studied cats in puzzle boxes and recorded their behaviors Significance: Creates "Law of Effect" theory	34
5902596645	Bandura	Contribution: Studied how children mimic others behaviors and repeat that same behavior Significance: Creates "Observational Learning" Theory	35
5902596646	Garcia	Contribution: Demonstrated the significance of biological processes in classical conditioning Significance: Creates "Taste Aversions" theory	36
5902596647	Seligman	Contribution: Used dogs to demonstrates the significance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning Significance: Creates "Learned Helplessness" theory	37
5902596648	Tolman	Contribution: demonstrated the significance of cognitive processes in operant conditioning by studying rats in mazes Significance: Creates the "Latent Learning" theory	38
5902596649	Bretlands	Contribution: demonstrated the significance of biological/instinctive processes in operant conditioning by studying a variety of animals Significance: Creates the "Instinctive Drift" theory	39
5902596650	Pavlov's Dogs	First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning	40
5902596651	Little Albert	First experiment to demonstrate how emotions can be classically conditioned in humans Provides a foundation for the "Behaviorism Theory"	41
5902596652	Conditioned Response	Part of Classical Conditioning Occurs after conditioning when the conditioned stimulus (CS) triggers an innate response Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Salivating to the Bell" Little Albert: "Screaming/Crying"	42
5902596653	Learned Helplessness	Defined: Exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive (bad) events produces passive behavior Study: Seligman delivering shocks to dogs Example: If a student consistently fails math, they may start to give up or a sports team that consistently loses may start to belive they can't win	43
5902596654	Reliable Signals	Defined: A cognitive process in classical conditioning where the organism must decide if the NS accurately predicts the UCS Example: Pavlov's Dogs-the dogs had to think that the NS (bell) predicted the UCS (meat)	44
5902596655	Concerns regarding Punishment	It does not teach the learner appropriate behavior and can also increase violent behavior in the learner	45
5902596656	Skinner Box	Also known as: Operant Chamber Description: A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal (rat or pigeon) can manipulate in order to obtain a reward	46
5902596657	Immediate Reinforcer	Defined: when you are immediately rewarded for a behavior (it's all about the short run) Example: skipping school and enjoying time with friends	47
5902596658	Superstitious Behavior	Defined: if a random reinforcement follows an event, the event will likely be repeated. Example: a lucky shirt, shoes, etc.	48
5902596659	Continuous Reinforcement Schedule	Defined: When every behavior is reinforced Example: a multiple choice test Significance: best for "establishing" a behavior	49
5902596660	Cognitive Maps	Defined: having the ability or know how to accomplish a particular task Example: Tolman's rats knew how to complete the maze	50
5902596661	Intrinsic Motivation	Defined: the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs. Example: reading books because you find them rewarding	51
5902596662	Extrinsic Motivation	Defined: the desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Example: reading a book because you need to get a good grade in your English class	52
5902596663	BoBo Doll Study	Psychologist: Bandura Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a confederate play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate Significance: used to develop "observational learning"	53
5902596664	Mirror Neurons	Defined: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so Example: explains why yawning is contagious	54
5902596665	Densensitization	Defined: after viewing a similar act/behavior, you become less emotionally responsive (indifferent or unaware) to the stimulus Example: The first murder on TV is shocking but becomes less shocking as you watch violent television	55
5902596666	Pro-Social Modeling	Defined: People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others Significance: When parents help their grandparents, the children will likely do the same	56
5902596667	Anti-Social Modeling	Defined: People show violent, selfish behavior prompts similar behaviors in others Significance: Watching violent TV prompts similar behaviors in others (pro-wrestling, etc.)	57
5902596668	Behaviorism	Psychologist: John B. Watson Defined: a theory that made psychology an objective science by making it based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind.	58
5902596669	Delayed Reinforcer	Defined: when you complete a behavior but not awarded immediately (it's all about the long run) Example: getting good grades in school and attending class in order to get a good job in the future	59
5902596670	Partial Reinforcement Schedule	Defined: When a random behavior is reinforced Example: Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval Significance: best for "maintaining" a behavior	60

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AP Biology Chapter 9 Flashcards

Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy

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5191368992	Fermentation	-catabolic process that partially degrades sugars w/o oxygen -expansion of glycolysis that allows continuous generation of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation of glucose -regenerates NAD+ by transferring electron from NADH to pyruvate -produce ATP by harvesting chemical energy of food -use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to pyruvate-net production of 2 ATP w/ substrate level phosphorylation -NAD+ is oxidizing agent that accepts electrons from food in glycolysis -final electron acceptor is organic molecule	0
5191368993	Aerobic Respiration	-oxygen consumed as reactant along w/ organic fuel -prokaryotes and eukaryotes -produce ATP by harvesting chemical energy of food -use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to pyruvate-net production of 2 ATP w/ substrate level phosphorylation -NAD+ is oxidizing agent that accepts electrons from food in glycolysis -final electron acceptor is NADH is oxygen-regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis, pays ATP bonus when electron transport from NADH -> O2 drives oxidative phosphorylation -citric acid cycle-oxidation of pyruvate bigger ATP pay off -19x more energy/sugar molecule	1
5191368994	Anaerobic Respiration	-process of using substances other than oxygen as reactants to harvest chemical energy w/o oxygen -use electron transport chain but don't use oxygen as final electron acceptor	2
5191368995	Cellular Repsiration	-process for animal to breathe oxygen; aerobic + anaerobic -C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP + heat)	3
5191368996	Redox Reactions	reactions w/ electron transfer	4
5191368997	Oxidation	loss of electrons from one substance	5
5191368998	Reduction	addition of electrons to another substance	6
5191368999	Reducing Agent	electron donor	7
5191369000	Oxidizing Agent	electron acceptor	8
5191369001	NAD+	-coenzyme electron acceptor -oxidizing agent in respiration	9
5191369002	Glycolysis	-begins degradation process by breaking glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules +2 ATP w/ substrate-level phosphorylation	10
5191369003	Citric Acid Cycle	-completes breakdown of glucose by oxidizing pyruvate to CO2 -CO2 produced represents fragments of oxidized organic molecules -takes place in mitochondrial matrix (eukaryotic) /cytosol (prokaryotic) +2 w/ substrate-level phosphorylation	11
5191369004	Acetyl CoA	junction between glycolysis and citric acid cycle 1. pyruvate's carboxyl group (-COO-) removed and given of as molecule of CO2 2. remaining 2-carbon fragment oxidized -> acetate. enzyme transfers extracted electrons to NAD+, storing energy in form of NADH 3. coenzyme A attached to acetate by unstable bond that makes acetyl group very reactive -> acetyl CoA has high potential energy-reaction to yield lower energy products is highly exergonic	12
5191369005	Oxidative Phosphorylation	-mode of ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions in electron transport chain-energy released at each step of chain stored in form for mitochondria -90% of ATP generated +32-34 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation	13
5191369006	Electron Transport Chain	breaks fall of electrons to oxygen in energy releasing steps -consists of molecules (proteins) in inner membrane (eukaryote)/plasma membrane (prokaryote)	14
5191369007	Cytochromes	most of remaining electron carriers	15
5191369008	ATP Synthase	-enzyme in inner membrane of mitochondrion that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic protein -ion pump running in reverse -uses energy of existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis	16
5191369009	Chemiosmosis	-process in which energy stored as H+ gradient across membrane used to drive cellular work like ATP synthesis -protons move one by one to binding sites of ATP synthase -> spins in way to catalyze production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphatwe	17
5191369010	Substrate-Level Phosphorylation	mode of ATP synthesis when enzyme transfers phosphate group from substrate molecule to ADP, rather than adding inorganic phosphate to ADP	18
5191369011	Proton-motive Force	H+ gradient and its capacity to do work	19
5191369012	Alcohol Fermentation	-pyruvate converted to ethanol 1. CO2 released from pyruvate-converted to 2-carbon acetaldehyde 2. acetaldehyde reduced by NADH to ethanol-regenerates supply of NAD+ for glycolysis	20
5191369013	Lactic Acid Fermentation	-pyruvate reduced directly by NADH -> form lactate w/ no release of CO2 -sugar catabolism for ATP production outpaces muscle's supply of oxygen -> cells switch from aerobic respiration to fermentation	21
5191369014	Obligate Anaerobes	organisms that only carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration-cannot survive in presence of oxygen	22
5191369015	Facultative Anaerobes	-make enough ATP to survive using fermentation or respiration -pyruvate -> 2 alternative catabolic rates -aerobic conditions: pyruvate -> acetyl CoA-oxidation continues in Krebs Cycle -anaerobic conditions: pyruvate diverted from Krebs Cycle-serves as electron acceptor to recycle NAD+ - has to consume sugar at faster rate	23

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Mitosis - AP Biology Flashcards

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6086797002	G1 Phase	First stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions. Cell is diploid.	0
6086797003	G0 Phase	Cell is performing its normal functions, but has left the cell cycle and is not dividing.	1
6086797004	S Phase	The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.	2
6086797005	G2 Phase	Last stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions. Cell is tetraploid.	3
6086797006	Interphase	Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases	4
6086797008	Align - Metaphase	Phase of mitosis in which spindle fibers help chromosomes line up on the midline of the cell.	5
6086797009	Separate - Anaphase	Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell.	6
6086797010	Telophase	Phase of mitosis during which chromosomes uncoil, a nuclear envelope returns around the chromatin, and a nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter cell"	7
6086797011	Cytokinesis	At the end of telophase, actin fibers form an equator around the cell and contract, separating the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.	8
6086797012	Centriole	A paired cluster of microtubules near the nucleus in animal cells. This organelle organizes spindle fibers during mitosis.	9
6086797013	Centromere	Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach to one another. Contains the kinetochore.	10
6086797014	Kinetochore	A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.	11
6086797015	Spindle Fibers	Made of microtubules that connect centrioles to kinetochores of chromosomes and that separate sister (mitosis) or homologous (meiosis) chromosomes during cell division	12
6086797016	Chromosome	A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.	13
6086797017	Chromatid	One of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome.	14
6086797018	Haploid	A cell with only one copy of each chromosome.	15
6086797019	Diploid	A cell with two copies of each chromosome.	16
6086797022	Cyclin-Dependent Kinase (CDK)	A group of protein kinases that are activated by the formation of a complex with a cyclin and are involved in the regulation of the cell cycle. Only active when bound to a cyclin.	17
6086797023	Cyclin	A cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle.	18
6086797026	p53	This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis. Damage to this protein can cause cancer.	19
6086797027	Proto-oncogene	A normal cellular gene corresponding to an oncogene; a gene with a potential to cause cancer but that requires some alteration to become an oncogene.	20
6086797028	Tumor Suppressor Gene	A gene whose protein products inhibit cell division, thereby preventing uncontrolled cell growth. Mutations in this gene can cause cancer.	21
6086797029	Kinase	An enzyme that adds a phosphate group to a protein. Phosphorylation usually activates protein activity.	22
6086797030	Phosphatase	An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein. Phosphorylation usually activates protein activity.	23
6086840324	G2 checkpoint	mistakes in DNA, proteins check that cell is large enough to divide	24
6086842997	M checkpoint	(spindle assembly checkpoint) mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not aligned properly	25

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AP English Poetry terms Flashcards

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6536739138	alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds	0
6536739139	allusion	A reference to another work of literature, person, or event	1
6536739140	antithesis	A balancing of two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses.	2
6536739141	apostrophe	A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love.	3
6536739142	assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds	4
6536739143	ballad meter	a four-line stanza rhymed abcd with four feet in lines one and three and three feet in lines two and four.	5
6536739144	blank verse	Unrhymed iambic pentameter	6
6536739145	cacaphony	Harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately in poetry or prose; the opposite o	7
6536739147	conceit	A fanciful, particularly clever extended metaphor	8
6536739148	consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds	9
6536739149	couplet	A pair of lines that end in rhyme	10
6536739152	didactic poem	a poem which is intended primarily to teach a lesson	11
6536739153	dramatic poem	A narrative poem in which one or more characters speak	12
6536739154	elegy	a sorrowful poem or speech	13
6536739156	enjambment	A run-on line of poetry in which logical and grammatical sense carries over from one line into the next.	14
6536739157	extended metaphor	A metaphor that continues beyond it's initial use, can be developed at great length	15
6536739158	euphony	pleasant, harmonious sound	16
6536739159	eye rhyme	rhyme that appears correct from spelling but does not rhyme because of pronunciation	17
6536739162	free verse	Poetry that does not have a regular meter or rhyme scheme	18
6536739166	irony	A contrast between expectation and reality	19
6536739167	internal rhyme	A word inside a line rhymes with another word on the same line	20
6536739168	lyric poem	A short poem of songlike quality	21
6536739171	meter	A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry	22
6536739172	metonymy	A figure of speech in which something is referred to by using the name of something that is associated with it	23
6536739174	narrative poem	A poem that tells a story	24
6536739175	octave	8 line stanza	25
6536739179	parallelism	A literary technique that relies on the use of the same syntactical structures	26
6536739184	quatrain	4 line stanza	27
6536739185	refrain	A line or set of lines repeated several times over the course of a poem.	28
6536739190	satire	A literary work that criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies.	29
6536739192	sestet	6 line stanza	30
6536739194	sonnet	14 line poem	31
6536739195	stanza	A group of lines in a poem	32
6536739200	synecdoche	. a figure of speech that utilizes a part as representative of the whole. "All hands on deck" is an example.	33
6536739202	tercet	3 line stanza	34
6536739203	terza rima	a verse form with a rhyme scheme: aba bcb cdc, etc.	35
6536739206	understatement	a statement that is restrained in ironic contrast to what might have been said	36
6536739207	villanelle	A 19 line form using only two rhymes and repeating two of the lines according to a set pattern	37