| 6741448314 | Girolamo Savonarola | (1452-1498) Dominican friar, attacked government of Florence (Lorenzo de' Medici), corruption of Pope Alexander VI, became religious leader of Florence, eventually excommunicated and executed by pope, shows that common people did not share worldly outlook of elite |  | 0 |
| 6741448315 | Petrarch | (1304-1374) thought he was living at the start of a new era, new age of intellectual achievement, father of humanism |  | 1 |
| 6741448316 | Lorenzo Valla | (1406-1457) humanist, defended pleasures of senses as the highest good, proved church documents false |  | 2 |
| 6741448317 | Giorgio Vasari | (1511-1574), art historian |  | 3 |
| 6741448318 | Donatello | (1386-1466) statues express an appreciation for the variety of human nature, revived classical figure |  | 4 |
| 6741448319 | Leonardo da Vinci | (1452-1519) contributed to modern concept of artist as an original thinker, saw art from a scientific POV and science from an artistic POV, true "Renaissance man" |  | 5 |
| 6741448320 | Castiglione | wrote The Courtier, sought to fashion the young gentleman into the courtly ideal, trained in physical, spiritual, intellectual and artistic pursuits |  | 6 |
| 6741448321 | Laura Cereta | (1469-1499) humanist, had to choose between marriage or a life of study |  | 7 |
| 6741448322 | Niccolo Machiavelli | (1469-1527), wrote The Prince, showed how a ruler should gain, maintain and increase his power, concludes that humans are inherently selfish, combine qualities of fox and lion, two basic ideas: one permanent social order reflecting God's ideals cannot be established and politics has its own laws and ought to be a science |  | 8 |
| 6741448323 | Thomas More | (1478-1535), wrote Utopia, presents a revolutionary view of society, believed society's flawed institutions were responsible for corruption and war, necessary to reform social institutions that molded the individual |  | 9 |
| 6741448324 | Erasmus | (1466-1536), believed education was the means to reform, and that Christianity is Christ's life, humanist |  | 10 |
| 6741448325 | Martin Luther | (1483-1546), articulated the widespread desire for reform of church and deep yearning for salvation, very conscientious friar, but doubted the value of the monastic life, troubled by sale of indulgences, writes 95 Theses and launches Protestant Reformation |  | 11 |
| 6741448326 | John Tetzel | friar appointed to sell indulgences | | 12 |
| 6741448327 | Ulrich Zwingli | (1484-1531), introduced Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures |  | 13 |
| 6741448328 | John Calvin | (1509-1564) developed Calvinism, believed in predestination-God selects certain people for salvation and condemns the rest, emphasized the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity, held Genevans to a high standard of morality, emphasized aggressive, vigorous activism |  | 14 |
| 6741448329 | John Knox | (1505-1572), dominated movement for reform, persuaded Scottish parliament to enact legislation ending papal authority |  | 15 |
| 6741448330 | Ignatius Loyola | (1491-1556) founded the Jesuit order, goal to help souls, spread Christian ideals through education |  | 16 |
| 6741448331 | Prince Henry "the Navigator" | (1394-1460) established a school for the study of geography, sent expeditions down the coast of Africa |  | 17 |
| 6741448332 | Christopher Columbus | discovered the New World, cruel and ineffective governor of Spain's Caribbean colony, sought a more direct route to the East Indies, laid the foundation for Spanish imperial administration in the Canary Islands |  | 18 |
| 6741448333 | Ferdinand Magellan | (1480-1521), commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to the spices of Molucca off the southeast coast of Asia, proved the earth was round and much larger than Columbus had estimated |  | 19 |
| 6741448334 | Hernando Cortes | (1485-1547), conquered the Aztec Empire, subjugated northern Mexico |  | 20 |
| 6741448335 | Francisco Pizarro | (1470-1541), conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, established the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru |  | 21 |
| 6741448336 | Michel de Montaigne | (1533-1592), introduced early modern skepticism, developed the essay to express his thoughts and ideas |  | 22 |
| 6741448337 | William Shakespeare | (1564-1616), most famous playwright of all time, original characters, great understanding of human psychology, diverse plots, unexcelled gift for language, appreciated classical culture, individualism and humanism |  | 23 |
| 6741448338 | Peter Paul Rubens | (1577-1640), representative of the baroque painters, colorful style characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts and monumental size, enormously successful |  | 24 |
| 6741448339 | Richelieu | (1585-1642), ruled as regent in place of Louis XIII, set in place the cornerstone of French absolutism, reshuffled royal council to curb the power of the nobility, established intendant system—intendants appointed directly by the monarch, solely responsible to him, enforced royal orders and weakened the power of the nobility, established French Academy to standardize language |  | 25 |
| 6741448340 | Jean-Baptiste Colbert | (1619-1683), appointed minister of finance by Louis XIV, applied system of mercantilism to France, believed France should be self-sufficient, attempted to accomplish this through state support of industries, created a powerful merchant marine to transport French goods, hoped to make Canada part of a vast French empire |  | 26 |
| 6741448341 | Moliere | (1622-1673), French playwright, plays that followed classical models but were based on careful social observation, made bourgeoisie the butt of his ridicule |  | 27 |
| 6741448344 | Miguel de Cervantes | (1547-1616), wrote Don Quixote, characterized 17th c. Spain |  | 28 |
| 6741448345 | William Laud | (1573-1645), archbishop of Canterbury, insisted on complete uniformity in church services, attempted to impose a new book of prayer on Scotland in 1637, the Scots revolted |  | 29 |
| 6741448346 | John Locke | (1632-1704), wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government, maintained that people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty and property, a government that oversteps this is a tyranny and must be overthrown, also wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, put forth the tabula rasa theory, which suggests that all ideas are derived from experience |  | 30 |
| 6741448347 | Nicolaus Copernicus | (1473-1543), felt that Ptolemy's rules for the movement of the planets detracted from the majesty of a perfect universe, preferred the idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe, suggested a universe of staggering size, destroyed idea of crystal spheres, attacked by religious leaders, events brought credibility to the Copernican hypothesis (new star, new comet) |  | 31 |
| 6741448348 | Tycho Brahe | (1546-1601), established himself as Europe's leading astronomer, collected a mass of data, believed that all planets revolved around the sun and that system revolved around the earth-moon system |  | 32 |
| 6741448349 | Johannes Kepler | (1571-1630), made sense of Brahe's observations, formulated three laws of planetary motion: 1) orbits of planets are elliptical, 2) planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits, 3) the time a planet takes to complete its orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun |  | 33 |
| 6741448350 | Galileo Galilei | (1564-1642), challenged old ideas about motion, elaborated on and consolidated the experimental method, now people could conduct controlled experiments, formulated the law of inertia, which explained that an object continues in motion forever until stopped by an external force, applied experimental method to astronomy |  | 34 |
| 6741448351 | Isaac Newton | (1642-1727), united experimental and theoretical/mathematical sides of science, created a set of mathematical laws to explain motion and mechanics, created the law of universal gravitation |  | 35 |
| 6741448352 | Francis Bacon | (1561-1626), argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical, experimental research, formulated empirical method, claimed it would result in highly practical knowledge |  | 36 |
| 6741448353 | Rene Descartes | (1596-1650), discovered analytic geometry, showed that geometric figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa, established Cartesian dualism, which reduced everything to physical and spiritual entities |  | 37 |
| 6741448354 | Bernard de Fontenelle | (1657-1757), sought to make science witty and entertaining to a borad non-scientific audience, helped bring science into conflict with religion, skeptical about absolute truth and the claims of organized religion | | 38 |
| 6741448356 | Montesquieu | (1689-1755), used wit as a weapon against cruelty and superstition, applied critical method to government in The Spirit of Laws, argued that despotism could be avoided through a separation of powers, believed a strong, independent upper class was very important |  | 39 |
| 6741448357 | Voltaire | (1694-1778), struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law, shared Montesquieu's enthusiasm for English institutions, mixed glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better institutions and individuals, did not believe in social and economic equality in human affairs, challenged Christianity, believed in a deistic God (the great Clockmaker), hated all forms of religious intolerance |  | 40 |
| 6741448358 | Baron Paul d'Holbach | (1723-1789), argued that human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces, deeply hostile toward religion | | 41 |
| 6741448359 | David Hume | (1711-1776), argued that the human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions which originate in sense experiences, reason cannot tell us anything that cannot be verified by sense experiences, undermined the Enlightenment's faith in reason |  | 42 |
| 6741448360 | Jean-Jacques Rousseau | (1712-1778), greatly influenced by Diderot and Voltaire, committed to individual freedom, felt civilization destroyed the individual, believed the general will reflected the common interests of the people, and that it must be interpreted by a small, far-seeing minority, called for greater love and tenderness towards children |  | 43 |
| 6741448361 | Immanuel Kant | (1724-1804), greatest German philosopher of the age, believed in freedom of the press (Categorical Imperitive) |  | 44 |
| 6741448364 | Jethro Tull | (1674-1741), tried to develop better methods of farming through empirical research, advocated using horses for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment |  | 45 |
| 6741448365 | Adam Smith | (1723-1790), established the basis for modern economics, opposed mercantilism, advocated free competition, believed the purpose of the government was for defense, maintenance of civil order and support of key social institutions, claimed market would be regulated by an "invisible hand" |  | 46 |
| 6741448366 | Edward Jenner | (1749-1823), collected data on the prevention of smallpox by cowpox, able to produce a vaccine for smallpox |  | 47 |
| 6741448367 | Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes | wrote What is the Third Estate?, argued that the nobility was a tiny, overprivileged minority and that the 3rd estate comprised the true strength of the French nation |  | 48 |
| 6741448368 | Maximilien Robespierre | (1758-1794), head of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the Reign of Terror, executed by guillotine during Thermidorian Reaction |  | 49 |
| 6741448369 | Edmund Burke | (1729-1797), criticized French Revolution, defended privileges of the monarchy and aristocracy, felt the revolution would only lead to chaos and tyranny |  | 50 |
| 6741448370 | Mary Wollstonecraft | (1759-1797), wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man and A Vindication of the Rights of Women, firm feminist, demanded education for women, advocated female participation in politics and an expansion of women's rights |  | 51 |
| 6741448372 | James Watt | (1736-1819), invented a more efficient steam engine, added a separate condenser to improve the Newcomen engine, solved the crisis of energy for Britain |  | 52 |
| 6741448373 | Thomas Malthus | (1766-1834), wrote Essay on the Principle of Population, argued that population would always outstrip the food supply, believed people should marry later in life to reduce population growth |  | 53 |
| 6741448374 | David Ricardo | (1772-1823), suggested the iron law of wages, which suggested that the pressure of population growth would always cause wages to sink to subsistence level |  | 54 |
| 6741448377 | Frederich List | (1789-1846), believed the growth of modern industry was of utmost importance, improved people's well-being and reduced poverty, believed promoting industry ensured national security, supported formation of the Zollverein among the German states, advocated a high protective tariff to protect domestic industry | | 55 |
| 6741448378 | Friedrich Engels | (1820-1895), wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England, claimed industrial capitalism had caused a dramatic increase in poverty, later the colleague of Karl Marx, wrote The Communist Manifesto |  | 56 |
| 6741448381 | Charles Fourier | (1772-1837), advocated a socialist utopian made up of self-sufficient communities, supported the total emancipation of women, criticized marriage |  | 57 |
| 6741448382 | Louis Blanc | (1811-1882), emphasized practical improvements, believed the state should set up workshops to reduce unemployment |  | 58 |
| 6741448384 | Karl Marx | (1818-1883), published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, believed the interests of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie were inevitably opposed, proletariat would triumph in a violent revolution |  | 59 |
| 6741448385 | Georg Hegel | (1770-1831), believed each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas, giving history pattern and purpose |  | 60 |
| 6741448388 | Victor Hugo | (1802-1885), wrote lyric poetry, amazing range of rhythm, language and image, equated freedom in literature with social and political liberty |  | 61 |
| 6741448389 | Eugene Delacroix | (1798-1863), greatest romantic painter in France, painted dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions |  | 62 |
| 6741448390 | Joseph M. W. Turner | (1775-1851), notable English romantic painter, depicted nature's power and terror |  | 63 |
| 6741448392 | Ludwig van Beethoven | (1770-1827), composer, used contrasting themes and tones to create drama |  | 64 |
| 6741448394 | Louis Pasteur | (1822-1895), developed the germ theory of disease, found that the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heat (pasteurization) |  | 65 |
| 6741448395 | Joseph Lister | (1827-1912), found connection between aerial bacteria and wound contamination, developed anti-septic principle |  | 66 |
| 6741448397 | Auguste Comte | (1798-1857), French philosopher, wrote System of Positive Philosophy, postulated that all intellectual activity passes through predictable stages, developed positivist method, a discipline of sociology |  | 67 |
| 6741448399 | Charles Darwin | (1809-1882), all life had evolved from a constant struggle for survival, believed that chance differences among members of a certain species allowed them to survive, variations eventually spread to entire species |  | 68 |
| 6741448400 | Herbert Spencer | (1820-1903), Social Darwinist, saw the human race as driven toward ever greater specialization in the brutal economic struggle |  | 69 |
| 6741448401 | Emile Zola | (1840-1902), realist writer, violently criticized social situation, strict determinist, famous for animalistic view of working class life, sympathized with socialism |  | 70 |
| 6741448404 | Leo Tolstoy | (1828-1910), greatest Russian realist, probed deeply into the lives of his characters, fatalistic theory of history, regarded free will as an illusion |  | 71 |
| 6741448405 | Cavour | dominant figure in Sardinia government 1850-1861, worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy, worked for a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria, regained Napoleon's support by ceding Savoy and Nice to France |  | 72 |
| 6741448406 | Giuseppe Garibaldi | (1807-1882), personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism of Mazzini, aimed to "liberate" the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, his Red Shirts roused the peasants and conquered Sicily |  | 73 |
| 6741448407 | Sergei Witte | Russian minister of finance 1892-1903, believed industrial backwardness threatened Russia's power and greatness, encouraged building of railroads, established high protective tariffs to build domestic industry, put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russia finances, used the West to catch up with the West |  | 74 |
| 6741448409 | Benjamin Disraeli | (1804-1881), extended the vote to all middle class males, aimed to broaden the Conservative party's traditional base of aristocratic and landed support |  | 75 |
| 6741448410 | William Gladstone | (1809-1898), Liberal prime minister, introduced bills to give Ireland self-government that failed to pass |  | 76 |
| 6741448412 | Muhammad Ali | (1769-1849), appointed governor of Egypt by Turkish government, built his state on the strength of an army organized along European lines, reformed the government and improved communications, established a strong and virtually independent Egyptian state, encouraged the development of commercial agriculture |  | 77 |
| 6741448414 | Cecil Rhodes | led British imperialism in Africa, conquered Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), developed gold mines, laid the foundations for apartheid |  | 78 |
| 6741448419 | Rasputin | self-proclaimed holy man, great influence over Tsarina Alexandra, treated son Alexei's hemophilia through hypnosis, murdered in December 1916 |  | 79 |
| 6741448420 | Frederich Nietzsche | (1844-1900), German philosopher, believed West overemphasized rationality and stifled passion and creativity, questioned all values, claimed Christianity glorified weakness, envy and mediocrity, believed pillars of conventional morality needed to be replaced | | 80 |
| 6741448426 | Marie Curie | (1867-1934), discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight |  | 81 |
| 6741448427 | Max Planck | (1858-1947), showed that atomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts called "quanta", called into question distinction between matter and energy |  | 82 |
| 6741448428 | Albert Einstein | (1879-1955), undermined Newtonian physics, theory of space relativity postulated that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer, only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference, stated that matter and energy are interchangeable, greatly expanded the world of physics |  | 83 |
| 6741448430 | Werner Heisenberg | (1901-1976), German physicist, formulated principle of uncertainty, impossible to know both the speed and location of an individual electron at the same time |  | 84 |
| 6741448431 | Sigmund Freud | (1856-1939), believed the human mind is basically irrational, controlled by id (irrational unconscious), ego (rationalizing conscious) and superego (ingrained moral values), mechanisms of traditional society and rationality restrain passion and sexual desires, received popular attention in 1918, undermined optimism about rational nature of human mind |  | 85 |
| 6741448432 | Virginia Woolf | (1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, series of internal monologues with ideas and emotions from varying time periods |  | 86 |
| 6741448433 | William Faulkner | (1897-1962), used stream-of-consciousness technique |  | 87 |
| 6741448434 | James Joyce | (1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, language of bewildering confusion intended to mirror modern life itself |  | 88 |
| 6741448437 | George Orwell | (1903-1950), predicted a totalitarian utopian world, believed "absolute power corrupts absolutely" |  | 89 |
| 6741448439 | Paul Cezanne | (1839-1906), committed to form and ordered design, later work increasingly abstract and non-representational, moved toward 2-D plane |  | 90 |
| 6741448442 | John Maynard Keynes | (1883-1946), English economist, believed harsh reparations would impoverish Germany and increase economic hardship in all other European countries, only a complete revision of the treaty could save Europe, advocated the use of large-scale deficits to stimulate the economy |  | 91 |
| 6741448444 | Ramsay MacDonald | (1866-1937)-governed England in 1924 and 1929, part of Labour party, supported by smaller Liberal party |  | 92 |
| 6741448446 | Karl Lueger | (1844-1910), mayor of Vienna, succeeded in winning support of the people, greatly influenced Hitler, showed him the enormous potential of anticapitalist and antiliberal propaganda |  | 93 |
| 6741448447 | Gandhi | (1869-1948), built a mass movement preaching nonviolent "noncooperation" with the British, received a constitution in 1935, practically a blueprint for independence |  | 94 |
| 6741448449 | Alexander Dubcek | (1921-1992), launched dramatic reforms in Czechslovakia, believed he could reconcile socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy, relaxed controls and censorship, Russian troops invaded, forced to obey Soviet demands |  | 95 |
| 6741448450 | Simone de Beauvoir | (1908-1986), feminist, wrote The Second Sex, analyzed position of women through framework of existentialist thought, women trapped by limiting and inflexible conditions, must use courageous action and self-assertive creativity to break free |  | 96 |
