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AP Psychology Chapter 9 Flashcards

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6553957036motivationprocess by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physiological/physical or psychological needs or wants are met "the reasons why people do the things they do"0
6553957037people to know from this chapterMcClelland (3 psychological needs) Maslow (hierarchy of needs) Yerkes-Dodson Law (performance//arousal) James-Lange Cannon-Bard Schachter1
6553957038approaches/theoriesmotivation: Instinct approach drive reduction theory self-theory arousal theory (stimulation) expectancy-value theory self-determination theory emotion: james-lange cannon-bard schachter2
6553957039instinct approachhuman behavior is governed by biologically determined, innate patterns of behavior better for explaining animal behavior, because humans can exercise self-control3
6553957040drive reduction theoryphysiological needs produce urges that motivate us to fulfill the need to reduce the tension/arousal dry mouth --> drink water HOMEOSTASIS: like an internal thermostat "a need is a requirement of some material that is essential for survival of the organism. when an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. this tension is called a drive."4
6553957041homeostasisour bodies try to maintain a state of equilibrium (balance in its physical states) body knows when enough is enough internal thermostat5
6553957042physiological needs are not enough to explain motivationie fraternity pledge died from drinking too much water. his body told him he'd had enough (physiological need was met), but the need to be accepted drove him to drink himself to death6
6553957043McClelland's 3 Psychological Needseveryone possesses them but one will be primary: affiliation power achievement7
6553957044need for affiliation-being liked and accepted -held in high regard -ensuring relationships are working well (peace maker) -being part of a group/team -minimize conflict -tasks with cooperation downside: opinions of others are too important-->peer pressure8
6553957045need for power-having an influence/impact on others -interested in status/position -giving advice, assistance, support and help -having control of situation -predisposed to persuading others -actively interested and involved in the politics of their organization benefit: direction/vision, leading downside: abuse power, conceited, forget it is about service9
6553957046need for achievement-meeting or surpassing self-imposed standard of excellence -enjoy out performing others -strive to make unique contribution -seeking feedback about their actions -taking actions that can be identified as their own (recognition, feedback) -choosing realistic goals (if the goal is too easy-won't feel accomplished if goal is too lofty- will be disappointed) benefit: next innovation downside: too competitive10
6553957047Self-Theory of Motivationa person's view of how self can affect the individual's perception of the success or failure of his or her actions LOCUS OF CONTROL self=the beliefs a person holds about his or her own abilities and relationships with others11
6553957048Internal locus of controlbelief that personal decisions and actions make a difference in life to certain extent, you can control the direction of your life12
6553957049external locus of controlbelief that life is controlled be authorities, luck, or fate cannot improve circumstances by anything you do hand-in-hand with depression13
6553957050arousal theory (recognizing yet another need: stimulation)-striving to maintain OPTIMAL (best or ideal) tension level -seeking stimulation if bored, relaxation if excited optimal level of tension= interested, comfortable, and engaged different for everyone; some people are thrill seekers and are comfortable at high levels14
6553957051Yerkes-Dodson Lawexplains the relationship between task performance and arousal tasks of low difficulty: to do best need higher arousal; easy=prone to careless error bec. not paying close attention tasks of average difficulty: average arousal level i.e. taking a test in an average difficulty class if too high: test-anxiety, can distract from doing best if too low: do not want to shrug it off and take it half asleep, either tasks of high difficulty: need lower arousal level (physical, not talking about mental concentration) ie. a brain surgeon should be calm, not jittery and rushed15
6553957052maintaining an optimal level of arousal may involve ______ tension OR _______ itreducing tension OR creating it16
6553957053(not on outline) Incentive approachbehavior is explained in terms of the external stimulus and its rewarding properties people can act only upon the incentive and not upon any need or level of arousal ie. eating a piece of pie because you anticipated that it would be delicious and rewarding17
6553957054Maslow's hierarchy of needs (theory)Humanistic approach there are several levels of needs that a person must strive to meet before achieving the highest level of personality fulfillment, *self-actualization* (which is seldom reached), at which point people have satisfied all the lower needs and have achieved their full human potential. humans must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence physiological-->safety-->belongingness-->esteem-->cognitive-->aesthetic-->self-actualization18
6553957055types of motivationextrinsic intrinsic how these two interact. extrinsic can replace the intrinsic. ie pro sports players start out doing it for the love of the game then money is offered. $$$$$ if the money was taken away, would they still play??19
6553957056extrinsic motivationexternal rewards; tangible a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from the person ie paycheck, toy, new clothes, car, promotion, free trip20
6553957057expectancy-value theoriesincentives are interpreted on the basis of a person's beliefs, values and the importance attached to them at a given time best external reward to motivate varies person to person "According to expectancy-value theory, behavior is a function of the expectancies one has and the value of the goal toward which one is working. Such an approach predicts that, when more than one behavior is possible, the behavior chosen will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value."21
6553957058intrinsic motivationinternal rewards; a person performs an action because the act itself is fun, rewarding, challenging, or satisfying in some internal manner22
6553957059Self-determination theoryneeds for autonomy (in control of one's own behavior), competence (mastery) and relatedness (sense of belonging) may motivate people23
6553957060WHY PEOPLE EATshows how complicated motivation can be!!! physiological components (body is designed to recognize when blood sugar has dropped below certain point) social components24
6553957061hypothalamus (related to eating)controlled by the levels of glucose and insulin in the body ventromedial hypothalamus lateral hypothalamus insulin high=glucose low25
6553957062ventromedial hypothalamusinhibits hunger when glucose is high STOPS EATING Prader Willi syndrome : VMH disorder where individual cannot feel full, keeps on eating and eating and eating26
6553957063lateral hypothalamusstimulates hunger when glucose is low STARTS EATING27
6553957064video on children's eating habitsyounger children listen to their bodies and stop eating when they feel full older children were driven by external cues; size of portion-->they assumed it was the right size for them "forbidden fruit effect" ie goldfish off limits at home; kids pigged out when the goldfish were make OK in the experiment28
6553957065weight set pointover time body established a weight that is considered average for their body can be established higher or lower than it should be (hypo/hyperthyroidism)29
6553957066basal metabolic ratebasal metabolic rate: the rate at which the body burns energy while at rest tends to decline with age must reduce food intake to maintain same weight30
6553957067social components of hungercoping mechanism/comfort learning (childhood) ; convention of eating breakfast, lunch and dinner at certain times of the time environmental cues (time of day) social pressure (to eat or not to eat) availability of food appeal of food (taste) cultural factors31
6553957068emotionsbig part of motivation "feeling" aspect of consciousness32
65539570693 components of emotionsphysiology behavior subjective experience33
6553957070physiology of emotionssympathetic nervous system arousal amygdala (emotional expression; fear and pleasure) some hemispheric specialization (right=negative, left=positive) emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another on the basis of physiological reactions alone i.e. heart pounding, sweat, butterflies : are you really excited or are you really nervous?34
6553957071behavior of emotionsfacial expressions, body movements and actions so much can be communicated without words35
6553957072subjective experience"the cognitive element" of emotion labeling an emotion based on context, previous experience and culture "the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution - a label."36
6553957073Value of emotionssurvival social connection37
6553957074survival (related to emotions)fear and anger: self defense and preservation disgust: avoidance of dangerous things (i.e. poisonous berry)38
6553957075social connection (emotions)because many emotions are universal, they help us to reach out and show encouragement, love, communication, influence, compassion, etc.39
6553957076facial expressions5 universal facial expressions (hard wired, innate) sad, angry, fearful, surprised, happy not learned, because even blind and deaf children perform them however, *display rules* vary culture to culture40
6553957077display ruleslearned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings when, where and HOW an emotion is expressed different between individualistic (USA) and collectivistic (Japan) cultures, and also between males and females ie Japanese have more strict social rules about showing emotion in public cultures also differ in what situation would DRIVE an emotion41
6553957078theories of emotionJames Lange Cannon-Bard Schachter's Two Factor Theory42
6553957079James-Lange theoryevent-->physiological change-->interpretation-->emotion "I am afraid because I am a shaking" hole: some emotions have the same physiological changes-how do you differentiate which emotion you're supposed to feel?!43
6553957080Cannon-Bard theoryevent-->physiological changes and emotion simultaneously hole: not everyone responds to the same event in the same way; doesn't really explain how different people would experience different emotions to the same event i.e. I would react in disgust to a plate of grubs, but some tribal person may be excited about it44
6553957081Schachter's two factor theory cognitive arousal theoryevent-->physiological and *cognitive* -->emotion physical arousal and labeling of the arousal based on cues from surrounding environment simultaneously "i am aroused in the presence of a scary dog, therefore i must be afraid" explains: how one type of physiological response could lead to different emotions how two people in the same situation could experience different emotions dinosaur chasing --> fear competitor catching up--> excitement same physiological reaction but different emotions because of CONTEXT45
6553957082cognitive appraisalprimary: determine likely outcomes of the situation secondary: decide how to feel about the situation involves learning and past experiences46
6553957083bottom line of motivationmotivation and emotion are complex issues involving interaction between a person's values, experiences, cognitive appraisals (learning), physiological responses (optimal arousal) and environment!47
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AP Government Chapter 3 Flashcards

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4943119327Necessary and Proper ClauseSection of the Constitution allowing Congress to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to its duties and which has permitted Congress to exercise powers not specifically given to it by the Constitution0
4943119328NullificationThe doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution1
4943119329Dual federalismDoctrine holding that the national government is supreme in its sphere, the states are supreme in theirs and the two spheres should be kept separate.2
4943119330Unitary Systemsovereignty is wholly in the hands of the national government3
4943119331Sovereigntysupreme or ultimate political authority.4
4943119332ConfederationStates are sovereign and the national government is allowed to do only that which the states permit5
4943119333McCulloch v MarylandThe Constitution's "necessary and proper" clause permits Congress to take actions (in this case to create a national bank) when it is essential to a power that Congress has (in this case, managing the currency)6
4943119334Gibbons v OgdenThe Constitution's commerce clause gives the national government exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce7
4943119335United States v LopezThe national government's power under the commerce clause does not permit it to regulate matters not directly related to interstate commerce (in this case, banning firearms in a school zone)8
4943119336InitiativeProcess that permits voters to put legislative measures directly on the ballot9
4943119337ReferendumProcedure enabling voters to reject a measure passed by the legislature10
4943119338RecallProcedure whereby voters can remove an elected official from office11
4943119339Grants-in-aidMoney given by the national government to the states12
4943119340Categorical grantsFederal grants for specific purposes, such as building an airport13
4943119341Block grantsFederal grants for general purposes and with few restrictions14
4943119342Conditions of aidTerms set by the national government that states must meet if they are to receive certain federal funds15
4943119343MandatesTerms set by the national government that states must meet whether or not they accept federal grants16
4943119344Waivera decision by an administrative agency granting some other part permission to violate a law or rule that would otherwise apply to it.17
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[node:title] Flashcards

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6625612098Bid-Rent Theorygeographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand on real estate changes as the distance towards the Central Business District (CBD) increases.0
6625615168BlockbustingIllegal practice of inducing homeowners to sell their properties by telling them that a certain people of a certain race, national origin or religion are moving into the area1
6625626302Break-of-Bulka location along a transport route where goods must be transferred from one carrier to another.2
6625629970Central Business DistrictThe downtown or nucleus of a city where retail stores, offices, and cultural activities are concentrated; building densities are usually quite high; and transportation systems converge.3
6625632846Central CityThe urban area that is not suburban; generally, the older or original city that is surrounded by newer suburbs.4
6625637986CentralityThe strength of an urban center in its capacity to attract producers and consumers to its facilities; a city's "reach" into the surrounding region.5
6625642166Central-Place Theorya theory that explains the distribution of services, based on the fact that settlements serve as centers of market areas for services; larger settlements are fewer and farther apart than smaller settlements and provide services for a larger number of people who are willing to travel farther6
6625646864CityAn urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.7
6625648368Computer Zone8
6625650489CongestionAn overcrowding; a clogging9
6625656106DecentralizationIn urban geography, forces that draw people and businesses out of the central city, often into suburbs. In political geography, a process whereby a state transfers functions or authority from the central government to lower-level internal subdivisions.10
6625661579Deindustrializationprocess by which companies move industrial jobs to other regions with cheaper labor, leaving the newly deindustrialized region to switch to a service economy and to work through a period of high unemployment11
6625667168Disamenity SectorThe very poorest parts of cities that in extreme cases are not even connected to regular city services and are controlled by gangs or drug lords.12
6625670839Edge CityCities that are located on the outskirts of larger cities nd serve many of the same functions of urban areas, but in sprawling, decentralized suburban environment.13
6625673378Emerging CitiesCity currently without much population but increasing in size at a fast rate14
6625685061Employment Structurehow the workforce is divided up between the three main employment sectors - primary, secondary, and tertiary15
6625688117Ethnic neighborhoodAn area within a city containing members of the same ethnic background.16
6625690666Favelaa slum community in a Brazilian city17
6625694582First Urban RevolutionThe innovation of the city that occurred separately in five different hearths. People became engaged in economic activities beyond agriculture, including crafts, the military, trade, and government.18
6625701447Formal EconomyThe legal economy that is taxed and monitored by a government and is included in a government's Gross National Product; as opposed to an informal economy19
6625703690Gated Communitya restricted access subdivision or neighborhood, often surrounded by a barrier, with entry permitted only for residents and their guests; usually totally planned in land use and design, with "residents only" limitations on public streets and parks20
6625706981Gateway cityCities that, because of their geographic location, act as ports of entry and distribution centers for large geographic areas. (Houston)21
6625709339GentrificationA process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.22
6625711906GhettoA poor densely populated city district occupied by a minority ethnic group linked together by economic hardship and social restrictions23
6625714178Gravity ModelA model that holds that the potential use of a service at a particular location is directly related to the number of people in a location and inversely related to the distance people must travel to reach the service.24
6625723047High-tech corridorPlace where technology and computer industries agglomerate25
6625726598HinterlandThe market area surrounding an urban center, which that urban center serves.26
6625735870Infill developmentoccurs within established urban areas where the site or area either is a vacant place between other developments or has previously been used for another urban purpose.27
6625740631Informal EconomyEconomic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government; and is not included in that government's Gross National Product; as opposed to a formal economy28
6625743471Infrastructureis all of the things that a society builds for public use29
6625747333Invasion and SuccessionProcess by which new immigrants to a city move to and dominate or take over areas or neighborhoods occupied by older immigrant groups. For example, in the early twentieth century, Puerto Ricans "invaded" the immigrant Jewish neighborhood of East Harlem and successfully took over the neighborhood or "succeeded" the immigrant Jewish population as the dominant immigrant group in the neighborhood30
6625750869Latin America City ModelBusiness in the center, people live around the center, poor people outside. (Griffin and Ford)31
6625757174Squatter SettlementAn area within a city in a less developed country in which people illegally establish residences on land they do not own or rent and erect homemade structures.32
6625760293SuburbA subsidiary urban area surrounding and connected to the central city. Many are exclusively residential; others have their own commercial centers or shopping malls.33
6625764356SuburbanizationMovement of upper and middle-class people from urban core areas to the surrounding outskirts to escape pollution as well as deteriorating social conditions (perceived and actual). In North America, the process began in the early nineteenth century and became a mass phenomenon by the second half of the twentieth century.34
6625766420SunbeltA region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the South and Southwest that has seen substantial population growth in recent decades, partly fueled by a surge in retiring baby boomers who migrate domestically, as well as the influx of immigrants, both legal and illegal.35
6625774613Symbolic Landscapelandscapes that express values, beliefs, and meanings of a particular culture.36
6626323895TenementA building in which several families rent rooms or apartments, often with little sanitation or safety37
6626327721ThresholdThe minimum number of people needed to support the service38
6626337995Urban Fringethe ring of small towns and suburbs that surround a city39
6626344706Urban functionServices that are provided in a certain urban area40
6626350153Urban HierarchyA ranking of settlements according to their size and economic functions.41
6626351601Urban Realma simplified description of urban land use, especially descriptive of the modern North American city. it features a number of dispersed, peripheral centers of dynamic commercial and industrial activity linked by sophisticated urban transportation networks.42
6626358763Urban SprawlThe process of urban areas expanding outwards, usually in the form of suburbs, and developing over fertile agricultural land.43
6626373650Urban Villagedistinctive residential districts comprising a clustering of people with a common culture and forming an identifiable community44
6626378701Leapfrog DevelopmentDevelopment that occurs well beyond the limits of the current urbanized area, usually to take advantage of less expensive land45
6626389289Maquiladorasthe term given to zones in Northern Mexico with factories supplying manufactured goods to the U.S. market. The low-wage workers in the primarily foreign-owned factories assemble imported components and/or raw materials and then export finished goods.46
6626410988Market AreaThe area surrounding a central place, from which people are attracted to use the place's goods and services.47
6626413822Mass TransitTransportation system designed to move large numbers of people along fixed routes48
6626416749McGee Urban Model49
6626420055McMansionHomes referred to as such because of their "super size" and similarity in appearance to other such homes; homes often built in place of tear-downs in American suburbs.50
6626422341MegacityA giant urban area that includes surrounding cities and suburbs City with more than 10 million people51
6626428846MegalopolisSeveral, metropolitan areas that were originally separate but that have joined together to form a large, sprawling urban complex.52
6626433533Metropolitan Areaa large city and its suburbs53
6626437479Multiple Nuclei model54
6626440944Mixed-Use DevelopmentAn approach to urban design that combines different types of land use within a particular neighborhood or district55
6626446211Neighborhooda small section of a city or town56
6626450277New UrbanismOutlined by a group of architects, urban planners, and developers from over 20 countries, an urban design that calls for development, urban revitalization, and suburban reforms that create walkable neighborhoods with a diversity of housing and jobs.57
6626456619Concentric Zone Model (Burgess)58
6626463227Sector Model (Hoyt)59
6626470848Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris and Ullman)60
6626478936Urban Realm (Hartshorn and Muller)61
6626497620Planned Communityarea where developers can plot out each house in development and build community from scratch62
6626509152Primate CityA country's leading city, with a population that is disproportionately greater than other urban areas within the same country.63
6626511046RangeThe maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.64
6626513663Rank-Size Rulea pattern of settlements in a country such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement65
6626521992RedliningA process by which banks draw lines on a map and refuse to lend money to purchase or improve property within the boundaries.66
6626532120Restrictive CovenantA provision in a deed to real property prohibiting its sale to a person of a particular race or religion. Judicial enforcement of such deeds is unconstitutional.67
6626540735Sector Model68
6626543377SegregationSeparation of people based on racial, ethnic, or other differences69
6626545431Sequent Occupationthe notion that succedsive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place each contributing to the cumulative cultural land scape70
6626547921Shanty Towna neighborhood in which people live in makeshift shacks71
6626547922SiteThe absolute location of a place72
6626553857SituationRelative Location73
6626569385Sluma district of a city marked by poverty and inferior living conditions74
6626573187Southwest Asia City (McGee) Model75
6626581760World CityCenters of economic, culture, and political activity that are strongly interconnected and together control the global systems of finance and commerce.76
6626584021Zoning LawsLegal restrictions on land use that determines what types of building and economic activities are allowed to take place in certain areas. In the United States, areas are most commonly divided into separate zones of residential, retail, or industrial use.77
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AP Vocab Arboles Flashcards

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4843303021abedul (m)birch0
4843303022álamopoplar1
4843303023árbol (m)tree2
4843303024arce (m)maple tree3
4843303025arbustobush (shrub)4
4843303026caobamahogany5
4843303027castañochestnut tree6
4843303028cedrocedar7
4843303029cerezocherry tree8
4843303030cortezabark, peel9
4843303031higuerafig tree10
4843303032hojaleaf11
4843303033huertoorchard12
4843303034manzanoapple tree13
4843303035naranjoorange tree14
4843303036nogal (m)walnut tree15
4843303037olivoolive tree16
4843303038olmoelm17
4843303039palmerapalm tree18
4843303040pinopine19
4843303041raíz (f)root20
4843303042ramabranch21
4843303043roble (m), encinaoak22
4843303044sauce (m)willow23
4843303045troncotrunk24
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AP Biology Cell Transport Flashcards

Covers general terms for cellular transport for AP Biology.

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8038333248Selectively Permeablea property of cell membranes that allows some substances to pass through, while others cannot0
8038333249Phospholipid Bilayerdouble layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes1
8038333250Integral Proteinspenetrate the hydrophobic core and often span the membrane2
8038333251Peripheral ProteinsBound to the inner or outer surfaces of the membrane and are easily separated from it.3
8038333252Glycoproteinsproteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them4
8038333253Glycolipidslipid that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them5
8038333254Passive Transporttransport that does not require the cell to expend energy (high to low concentration)6
8038333255Active Transportenergy-requiring process where a substance moves against the concentration gradient (low to high concentration)7
8038333256Diffusionnet movement of a substance down a concentration gradient (high to low)8
8038333257Facilitated Diffusiondiffusion of solutes across a membrane, with the help of transport proteins9
8038333258Osmosisdiffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane10
8038333259Hypertonicsolute concentration is greater than inside the cell, cell loses water; plant cells plasmolyze, animal cells crenate11
8038333260Hypotonicsolute concentrations in less than inside the cell, cell gains water; animal cells lyse, plant cells have ideal turgor pressure12
8038333261Isotonicsolute concentrations are the same on both sides of the membrane, cell does not gain or lose water; ideal condition for animal cells13
8038333262Sodium-Potassium Pumpactively pumps Na+ ions out and K+ ions in, 3 Na leave for every 2 K that enter14
8038333263Proton Pumppumps (H+ ions) out of the cell, creating a proton gradient, protons diffuse back into the cell, which powers ATP production15
8038333264Exocytosisexporting macromolecules by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane16
8038333265Endocytosisimporting macromolecules by forming vesicles derived from plasma membrane17
8038333266Phagocytosispart of the cell membrane engulfs large particles or entire cells (cell eating)18
8038333267Pinocytosispart of the cell membrane engulfs small dissolved substances or fluid droplets in vesicles (cell drinking)19
8038333268Receptor-Mediated Endocytosisimporting of specific macromolecules by receptor proteins bind to a specific substance which triggers the inward budding of vesicles formed from coated pits20
8038333269Ligandsmolecule that binds to the specific receptor site on another molecule21
8038333270Fluid Mosaic Modelstates that the membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in it22
8038333271Transport Proteinsallow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane23
8038333272Concentration Gradienta difference in concentration across a distance24
8038333273Turgor Pressurethe pressure that is exerted on the inside of cell walls, caused by the movement of water into the cell25
8038333274Aquaporinsfacilitates the passage of water into a cell26
8038333275plasmolysisAs a plant cell loses water, it shrivels, and its plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall27
8038333276cholesterolA large, ring shaped lipid found in cell membranes. Its presence helps to maintain flexibility and fluidity in the membrane.28
8038333278water potentiala measurement that combines the effects of solute concentration and pressure to predict the direction water will flow29
8038333279solute potential-iCRT, component of water potential which is proportional to its molarity30
8038333280pressure potentialcomponent of water potential which is the physical pressure on a solution31
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AP Psychology ~ Learning Vocab Flashcards

Learning
Page 313-347

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5521219710LearningA relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.0
5521219711Associative LearningLearning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).1
5521219712Classical ConditioningA type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.2
5521219713BehaviorismThe view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).3
5521219714Unconditioned Response (UCR)In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.4
5521219715Unconditioned Stimulus (US)In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.5
5521219716Conditioned Response (CR)In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).6
5521219717Conditioned Stimulus (CS)In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.7
5521219718AquisitionIn classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditional response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.8
5521219719ExtinctionThe diminishing of a conditioned response (CR); occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.9
5521219720Spontaneous RecoveryThe reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.10
5521219721GeneralizationThe tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (US).11
5521219722DiscriminationIn classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.12
5521219723Operant ConditioningA type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.13
5521219724Respondent BehaviorBehavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.14
5521219725Operant BehaviorBehavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.15
5521219726Law of EffectThorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.16
5521219727Operant ChamberA chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.17
5521219728ShapingAn operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.18
5521219729ReinforcerIn operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.19
5521219730Positive ReinforcementIncreasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.20
5521219731Negative ReinforementIncreasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that when removed after the response, strengthens the response. Note: Negative Reinforcement is NOT Punishment.21
5521219732Primary ReinforcerAn innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.22
5521219733Conditioned ReinforcerA stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer23
5521219734Continuous ReinforcementReinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.24
5521219735Partial (Intermittent) ReinforcementReinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.25
5521219736Fixed-Ratio ScheduleIn operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.26
5521219737Variable-Ratio ScheduleIn operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.27
5521219738Fixed-Interval ScheduleIn operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.28
5521219739Variable-Interval ScheduleIn operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.29
5521219740PunishmentAn event that decreases the behavior that it follows.30
5521219741Cognitive MapA mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.31
5521219742Latent LearningLearning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.32
5521219743Intrinsic MotivationA desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.33
5521219744Extrinsic MotivationA desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.34
5521219745Observational LearningA type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.35
5521219746ModelingA therapeutic technique in which the client learns appropriate behavior through imitation of someone else.36
5521219747Mirror NeuronsFrontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.37
5521219748Prosocial BehaviorBehavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice.38
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AP Euro Congress of Vienna Flashcards

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9044097160Carlsbad DecreesIssued by Metternich, required 39 independent German states, including Prussia and Austria, to root out subversive ideas. (censorship) Also established permanent committee with spies to punish any liberal or radical organization.0
9044097161Lord CastlereaghThe British representative at the Congress of Vienna, he represented the UK at the Congress and helped create the security system for Europe that would last until 1848.1
9044097162Czar Alexander Ithe czar of Russia whose plans to liberalize the government of Russia were unrealized because of the wars with Napoleon (1777-1825)2
9044097163Frederich William IIIPrussia's representation in the Big Four. He wanted land.3
9044097164Francis IThis was the French king who reached an agreement with Pope Leo X and allowed the French king to select French bishops and abbots4
9044097165Talleyrandfrench minister and representative at the Congress of Vienna5
9044097166Klemens von MetternichThis was Austria's foreign minister who wanted a balance of power in an international equilibrium of political and military forces that would discourage aggression6
9044097167Buffer StatesSafeguarded other major European countries from French invasion7
9044097168Balance of Poweran equilibrium of power between nations8
9044097169National Self-DeterminationThe idea that people should determine who and what they want leading them9
9044097170Liberalisman economic theory advocating free competition and a self-regulating market and the gold standard10
9044097171Legitimacypolitical authority conferred by law or by a state or national constitution11
9044097172Compensationpayment or whatever is given or done to make up for something12
9044097173Holy Alliancea league of European nations formed by the leaders of Russia, Austria, and Prussia after the congress of Vienna13
9044097174Quadruple AllianceThis was the alliance between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia after the Napoleonic era14
9044097175Monroe Doctrinean American foreign policy opposing interference in the Western hemisphere from outside powers15
9044097176Louis XVIIIFrench monarch who was restored to the throne by the allies after Napoleon was defeated.16
9044097177ConservativesLike to stick to the traditional ways of government and tend to oppose change17
9044097178Congress of ViennaMeeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon18
9044097179Radicalsthose who favor extreme change19
9044097180Concert of Europea series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions20
9044097181Otto Von BismarckGerman statesman under whose leadership Germany was united (1815-1898)21
9044097182Nationalismlove of country and willingness to sacrifice for it22
9044097183Guiseppe Garibaldipart of Italian unification. In 1860 led an army of nationalists to conquer and unite southern Italy. He allowed the King of Sardinia to rule. His group was called the "Red Shirts" because they wore red23
9044097184Nation Statea state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality24
9044097185Camillo CavourThe political mastermind behind all of Sardinia's unification plans, he succeeded in creating a Northern Italian nation state25
9044097186Balkansgeopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe. Greece and the region North of Greece.26
9044097187Real PolitikGerman term meaning practical politics, that means, policy determined by expediency rather then by ethical or ideological considerations.27
9044097188KaiserGerman emperor28
9044097189Louis Napoleon BonaparteElected president of France following general election. Won 70% of the votes because of his name. Bonaparte later changed the government to an empire w/himself as emperor just like his uncle, the original Napoleon.29
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AP ECON - Chapter 30 Flashcards

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6423769676Aggregate demandThe total demand for goods and services over varying prices within the economy, including componenting such as household consumption, business investment, government spending & net exports., the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be purchased at all possible price levels0
6423769677Real balances effectAn increase (or decrease) in the price level decreases (or increases) the purchasing power of financial instruments, which in turn decreases (or increases) the aggregate quantity demanded1
6423769678Interest rate effectThe changes in household and business buying as the interest rate changes (in turn, a reflection of a change in the demand for or supply of credit brought on by price level changes)2
6423769679Foreign purchases effectinverse effect of domestic prices compared to foreign prices. If goods of foreign countries decrease in regard to domestic prices, net exports will decrease3
6423769680Determinants of aggregate demandFactors such as input prices, productivity, and the legal-institutional environment that, if they change, shift the aggregate supply curve4
6423769681Aggregate supplyThe total amount of goods and services in the economy available at all possible price levels5
6423769682Immediate short run aggregate supply curveA aggregate supply curve at which real output, but not the price level, changes when the aggregate demand curve shifts; a horizontal aggregate supply curve that implies an inflexible price level.6
6423769683Short run aggregate supply curveShows positive relationship between price level and RGDP - The higher the price, the more production of a good7
6423769684Long run aggregate supply curveThe level of real GDP is determined by the number of workers, the capital stock-including factories, office buildings, and machinery and equipment-and the available technology. Changes in price level don't affect this aggregate supply curve, making it vertical8
6423769685Determinates of aggregate supplyFactors that shifts the aggregate supply curve left or right- includes input prices, productivity, and legal-institutional environment9
6423769686ProductivityA measure of the amount of output based on the amount of inputs used10
6423769687Equilibrium price levelThe price level that equates aggregate supply and aggregate demand11
6423769688Equilibrium real outputThe gross domestic product at which the total quantity of final goods and services purchased (aggregate expenditures) is equal to the total quantity of final goods and services produced (the real domestic output); the real domestic output at which the aggregate demand curve intersects the aggregate supply curve12
6423769689Menu costsThe costs of changing prices13
6423769690Efficiency wagesWages that elicit maximum work effort and thus minimize labor costs per unit of output14
6423769691AD-AS model (aggregate demand- aggregate supply model)15
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APES pollution definitions Flashcards

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8088222960atmospherethin layer of gases surrounding our planet0
8088222961troposphereatmospheric layer closest to surface, weather occurs here1
8088222962stratospherecontains ozone layer, blocks out UV light2
8088222965nitrogenmajor component of atmospheric gases = 78% of troposphere.3
8088222966ozone layerFound in stratosphere, filters out Ultra violet radiation UVA and UVB4
8088222969Thermal inversionwarm layer of air over cold layer, pollutants can be trapped5
8088222970Primary pollutantsharmful substances released into the air through volcanoes, industry, combustion, etc.6
8088222971Secondary pollutantsinteraction of a primary pollutant with another substance in the air forming new chemical compounds7
8088222972Clean Air ActFederal Law monitoring industrial and auto emissions pertaining to air quality standards8
8088222973Carbon monoxide COcolorless odorless gas produced by incomplete burning of fuel- asphyxiant for humans. produced by incomplete combustion (burning with limited oxygen) Odorless, colourless and tasteless.9
8088222974Carbon dioxide- CO2greenhouse gas that contributes to maintaining the Earth's temperature. Not monitored by the EPA as part of the Clean Air Act.10
8088222975Sulfur dioxide- SO2colorless gas with strong odor from coal burning11
8088222976Nitrogen dioxide NO2Brown gas produced by burning of fossil fuels, especially vehicle emissions, contributes to photochemical smog. Oxidizing.12
8088222977Tropospheric ozoneground level ozone caused by pollution and photochemical smog.13
8088222978Particulate mattersuspended solids or liquids in the air- can be harmful to respiratory system, especially if made of hazardous materials such as heavy metals or asbestos.14
8088222979Lead -Pbheavy metal, no longer in gasoline, now from industrial metal smelting and coal burning, affects CNS15
8088222980Volatile organic compounds -VOCcarbon containing chemicals and solvents that are reactive and combustable. Primary pollutant in photochemical smog.16
8088222981Scrubbersremove airborne pollutants from smokestacks- (ie. coal burning power plants)17
8088222982Industrial smogcaused from burning of coal-- releasing SOx into atmosphere. Gray air smog.18
8088222983Photochemical smogfroms when sunlight mixes with nitrogen oxides (NOx), and VOCs forming (O3) ozones, PANs and Aldehydes.19
8088222984Chloroflourocarbons-CFCadepletes ozone, from refrigerants, air conditioner, propellants in aerosols, cleaners and fumigants.20
8088222985Acid depositionfrom sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxides mixed with water vapor to become acids (Sulfuric and Nitric acid)-- return to land in precipitation.21
8088222986Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)Secondary pollutant in photochemical smog. Oxidizing agent.22
8088251450Natural emissionsPollutants come from volcanoes, forest fires, and the biosphere.23
8088260779Anthropogenic emissionsPollutants come from human activities, such as vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes.24
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AP Human Acronyms Flashcards

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9557075972LDCless developed country0
9557075973NICnewly industrialized country1
9557079032MDCmore developed country2
9557083265HDIhuman development index3
9557083266GDPgross domestic product4
9557086138GNPgross national product5
9557086141PPPpurchasing power parity6
9557088971FDIforeign direct investment7
9557094429EPZexport processing zone8
9557096460BRICSBrazil Russia India China South Africa9
9557100519CBDcentral business district10
9557100520MNCmultinational corporation11
9557103793SINKssingle income no kids12
9557106414DINKsdouble income no kids13
9557106415NAFTANorth American Free Trade Agreement14
9557109235CBRcrude birth rate15
9557109236CDRcrude death rate16
9557111013DTMdemographic transition model17
9557111014ETMepidemiologic transition model18
9557114321GDIgender development index19
9557120107GMOgenetically modified organism20
9557120108GISgeographic information systems21
9557122346GPSglobal positioning system22
9557124405GNIgross national income23
9557130549IMRinfant mortality rate24
9557130550MSAmetropolitan statistical area25
9557133472NIRnatural increase rate26
9557133473RPreceived pronunciation27
9557136370TFRtotal fertility rate28
9557138765UNCLOSUnited Nations Convention of the Law of the Seas29
9557141118EUEuropean Union30
9557141119NATONorth Atlantic Treaty Organization31
9557143720ASEANAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations32
9557143721OPECOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries33
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