| 7766964753 | Prokaryotes | first organism; unicellular; split into 2 groups= bacteria and archea | | 0 |
| 7766972476 | Eukaryotes | made from merge of bacteria & archea; have outer and inner membranes that enclose specialized organelles | | 1 |
| 7766984823 | Cellular specialization | cells specialize in ex. repro, absorption; allowed multicellular eukaryotes to increase in size and efficiency | | 2 |
| 7766995256 | Aerobic metabolism | uses O2 to extract energy from nutrient molecules; more efficient than anaerobic | | 3 |
| 7767005960 | Genome | sum total of DNA molecules in each cell | | 4 |
| 7767017899 | Biological hierarchy | tissues, organs, organ system | | 5 |
| 7767024254 | Phosphorus & sulfur | good carriers of energy (ATP); important in protein structure; sulfur used in oxidation-reduction | | 6 |
| 7767041541 | Protein Structure | long chains of amino acids made by Covalent bonds; weak forces determine precise folding pattern to make most stable 3D object= max. # of weak bonds + minimum amount of polar/nonpolar groups (unfavorable); in order to break covalent bond need catalyst | | 7 |
| 7767063724 | Macromolecule Monomers | (fatty acids+ glycerol); monosaccharide (sugar); amino acids; nucleic acids | | 8 |
| 7767076427 | How do you build macromolecules? | condensation/ dehydration reax. require energy; -OH group and H group from 2 monomers bond to create H2O | | 9 |
| 7767090290 | Hydrolysis | breaking down a polymer; adds H2O breaking bond; no energy required; opposite of condensation/dehydration | | 10 |
| 7767100939 | Fatty acids + glycerol | Fatty acids= long hydrocarbon chain w/ carboxyl end; Glycerol= 3 hydroxyl (OH) groups |  | 11 |
| 7767119344 | Differences between Fatty acids | 1) length of hydrocarbon chain (usually 14-18 carbon atoms) 2) saturation(carbon chains packed really tight) + unsaturation(cis double bond creates bending) | | 12 |
| 7767134809 | triglyceride | glycerol+ 3 fatty acids + 3 ATP | | 13 |
| 7767137241 | Triglycerides | important for of stored energy; can be broken down into smaller pieces releasing ATP for cells; almost no charge asymmetry so VERY insoluble in cytoplasm; form oil droplets | | 14 |
| 7767154446 | Homeostasis | maintaining internal physiological conditions within narrow range; regulatory systems get info from sensory cells that give info about internal/ external conditions | | 15 |
| 7767167160 | Radioisotopes | unstable, spontaneously give off energy as alpha, beta of gamma | | 16 |
| 7767174717 | Amphithatic | when molecule has hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts | | 17 |
| 7767179407 | Cholesterol | type of phospholipid that reduces fluidity at moderate temps | | 18 |
| 7767183380 | Functions of cell membrane | define limits of cell in aqueous environment; keep good things in and bad things out; lipid bilayer is almost perfect; very stable structure | | 19 |
| 7767195549 | How do good things get into the cell? | proteins transport good things in; transmembrane proteins= can transport, or be an enzyme, or signal transduction, or cell-cell recognition | | 20 |
| 7767210290 | ALpha sugar vs. Beta Sugar | Alpha: on carbon #1, OH group on bottom, H group on top
Beta: on C1, OH on top and H on bottom | | 21 |
| 7767227109 | Differences in sugars | # of carbons (about 3-7); and orientation of OH/H at each carbon | | 22 |
| 7767241484 | Starch | 1-4 linkage of ALPHA glucose monomers; connected by H-bonds (for plants) | | 23 |
| 7767243668 | Cellulose | 1-4 linkage of BETA glucose monomers; connected by H-bonds | | 24 |
| 7767254115 | Glycogen | key to maintaining blood glucose levels; used in animals; great fuel molec. for our cells; can be used to drive synthesis of lots of ATP; glycogen is like glucose "in the bank" | | 25 |
| 7767272070 | Glycogen structure | 2 phosphate groups and a 5 carbon sugar group | | 26 |
| 7767276474 | Proteins | 50% of any weight of cells; most versatile macromol.; carries out the blueprints that are in the DNA |  | 27 |
| 7767286978 | How many amino acids? | 20; 200 billion combos for 10 amino acid chains but only 25-26000 are made | | 28 |
| 7767302458 | How do we build proteins? | 1) covalently attach amino acid sequentially into long linear chains; no branches; 2) fold them into complex 3D structure | | 29 |
| 7767314603 | Peptide bond formation | condensation/ dehydration reax. aa1+aa2 +ATP--> aa1-aa2 (peptide bond) _ ADP + P + H2O; peptide bond= C--N |  | 30 |
| 7767326916 | Primary level of protein structure | what amino acid is in what position, long line ending with carboxylic group | | 31 |
| 7767330023 | Secondary level of protein structure | weak forces in action; where there's a helix, the R groups are compatible (the rest might have neg. interactions so it cant coil); in 3D structure, H on N can attach to O on C | | 32 |
| 7767345206 | Tertiary Level of Protein structure | larger scale-- intra-molecular folding interactions; weak forces (ex. ionic bonds, H-bonds) can be mechanism for establishing tertiary structure; alpha helix and beta-pleated sheet; combo of weak forces+ disulfide bonds | | 33 |
| 7767365146 | Disulfide bridge | covalent bond between 2 polypeptide chains; S bonds to other S and creates bridge; important for proper structure of some proteins | | 34 |
| 7767379678 | Quaternity level of protein structure | not all proteins have this level; inter-molecular folding interax.; association of multiple independent polypeptide chains (ex. AlphaBetaAlphaBeta); only antibodies use covalent bonds in the quaternity structure | | 35 |
| 7767397163 | Chaperones | proteins that help protect 3D shape of other proteins | | 36 |
| 7767399734 | Carbohydrates | source of stored energy that can be released; used to transport stored energy; carbon skeletons that can be rearranged to form new molecules | | 37 |
| 7767411502 | 4 categories of Carbohydrates | 1) Monosaccharides= glucose, simple sugars, monomers
2) Disaccharides= 2 monosacc. linked by covalent bonds; ex. sucrose--> glucose+ fructose
3) Oligosaccharides= several (3-20_ monosacc.
4) POlysaccharides= ex. starch, cellulose; hundreds-thousands of monosacc. | | 38 |
| 7767435247 | Monosaccharides | all living cells have glucose; glucose can be as ring or straight chain; pentoses= 5 carbond sugars; hexoses= group of structural isomers w/ formula C6H12O6 | | 39 |
| 7767451508 | Microtubules | non-covalent polymers made from alpha and beta Tubulin protein subunites; these are tracks for axonal transport | | 40 |
| 7778327500 | Sickle cell anemia | first human condition shown to be caused by protein mutation (John Singer & Linus Pauling); change in #6 goes from GLU (hydrophilic)--> valtanic acid which is hydrophobic | | 41 |
| 7778359583 | Difference between DNA and RNA? | at #2 C: DNA has H, while RNA has OH | | 42 |
| 7778382081 | Frederick Griffith | 1928-- discovered transformation using S cells and R cells: living S cells= mouse dies, R cells= mouse lives, heat killed S cells= mouse lives, Mix of heat killed S cells+ living R cells= mouse dies | | 43 |
| 7778397135 | Oswald Avery | 1944-- 3 test tubes one w/ RNase, one w/ Protease, and one w/ DNase--> results showed DNA alone is the genetic material | | 44 |
| 7778409633 | Evidence for DNA being genetic material | DNA found only in nucleus, amount of DNA is constant, never degrades | | 45 |
| 7778417453 | Alfred Hershey & Margaret Chase | phage (virus) + bacteria cells= bacteria cells blow up (lyse), and thousands of new phages created | | 46 |
| 7778429370 | Francis Crick and James Watson | 1953-- used Rosalind Franklin's x-ray diffraction to create correct structure: DNA is helical, composed of more than 1 chain, has a "regular" structure--> backbones on outside, bases on inside, each base H-bonds to base on other chain, 2 sugar-phosphate backbones, A&T, C&G | | 47 |
| 7778462879 | Steps of DNA replication | 1) RNA Polymerase makes RNA Primer (at 5' end) which begins starting point for DNA Plymerase
2) DNA Polymerase III= replication of leading/ lagging strands; does the base pairing
3) DNA Polymerase I= degrades RNA Primer/ replaces w/ nucleotides
4) DNA Ligase= fills in holes of new strand where RNA primer used to be | | 48 |
| 7778528167 | Topoisomerase | cuts and reseals chains | | 49 |
| 7778533243 | Telomeres | lagging strand can't be replicated all the way to the end, so telomeres are regions of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of the chromosome to protect the end of chromosome from deterioration | | 50 |
| 7778543251 | Telomerase | places RNA template for DNA to be built on | | 51 |
| 7778546024 | Helicase | unwinds parental double helix at replication forks | | 52 |
| 7778548739 | Singel-Strand Binding Protein | bind to/ stabalizes single stranded DNA until it's used as a template | | 53 |
| 7778563584 | Sliding DNA Clamp | binds to DNA then DNA Polymerase binds to clamp; stabalizing polym. and increasing efficiency | | 54 |
| 7778582746 | RNA Primase | CAN start chain de novo; comes in at fork and allows polymerase to begin synthesizing (allow Okasaki fragments to begin forming) | | 55 |
| 7778606478 | DNA Repair Mechanisms | DNA Polymerase proofreads; there's also mismatch repair, + excision repair | | 56 |
| 7778620107 | PCR Polymerase Chain Reax. | copies single piece of DNA; start w/ 1 double strand of DNA, heat them, add 2 primers and DNA Polymerase--> 2 pieces of DNA identical to original | | 57 |
| 7778641342 | Differences between DNA and RNA | Uracil replaces Thymine; ribose replaces deoxyribose; usually single stranded; RNA chains vary; can fold up itself into 3D structures like proteins | | 58 |
| 7778651656 | Messenger RNA (mRNA) | intermediate between DNA and proteins; about 1-2% of RNA types | | 59 |
| 7778657788 | Transcription | RNA Polymerase scans DNA and finds START point; unwinds DNA and makes copy of single strand; rewinds DNA and keeps on transcribing (5'--> 3') | | 60 |
| 7778672497 | Codon | sequence of 3 nucletoides on mRNA | | 61 |
| 7778641343 | AUG codon | START position/ Met(M) | | 62 |
| 7778680356 | Transfer RNA (tRNA) | small; 3 leaf clover shaped; (*BOTTOM OF CLOVER= ANTICODON AND CORRELATES W/ 3' END OF RNA) amino acid + tRNA enter active site of enzyme--> tRNA attached to amino acid (uses ATP) | | 63 |
| 7778711936 | Ribosome | small subunit= grabs onto mRNA; big subunit=tRNA; has an Exit, P-site, and Entrance; anticodon attaches to mRNA strand, 1st tRNA transfers amino acid to 2nd tRNA then leaves |  | 64 |
| 7779022659 | Release factor | says STOP, tRNA goes away; ribosome dissociates; amino acid chain flies away | | 65 |
| 7779027525 | Redundancy | multiple codons that translate to the same amino acid | | 66 |
| 7779040025 | Signal Sequence | hydrophobic 12-amino acid chain, attaches to protein; goes to endoplasmic reticulum--> golgi apparatus--> secretion; hydrophobic sequences tells cell protein needs to be secreted | | 67 |
| 7779054878 | Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS) | type of "targetting signal" often series of positively charged amino acids on the surface of a protein; direct proteins to nucleus | | 68 |
| 7779063169 | Proteolysis | post-transitional modifications of proteins; cleaving polypeptide allows fragments to fold into different shapes | | 69 |
| 7779068677 | Glycosylation | post-transitional modifications of proteins; adding sugars important for targeting/ recognition | | 70 |
| 7779074471 | Phosphorylation | post-transitional modification of proteins; added phosphorous groups alter shape | | 71 |
| 7779083730 | Substitution: Silent | A instead of G= no change because still codes for same amino acid | | 72 |
| 7779183009 | Substitution: Missense | T instead of C= AGC becomes serine; changes code for single amino acid (what happens in sickle cell anemia) | | 73 |
| 7779250611 | Substitution: Nonsense | A instead of T= codon becomes STOP codon; stops entire protein chain | | 74 |
| 7779259049 | Frame-shift Mutation | insertion/deletion of a base that causes a shift and all subsequent codons are coded incorrectly | | 75 |
| 7779282433 | 3-Nucleotide pair deletion | no frame-shift, but one amino acid missing; 70% of cases in cystic fibrosis | | 76 |
| 7779293248 | Alternating splicing | mRNA can pick and choose which exons (part of DNA that is included in rna strand) they want to use | | 77 |
| 7779302986 | Spliceosome | introns (noncoding area of DNA not included in rna) are cut out by this during transcription | | 78 |
| 7779558206 | microRNA | mRNA inhibition; binds to it and blocks little segments | | 79 |
| 7779565118 | Proteosome | breaks down proteins; protein targeted for breakdown, enzyme attaches ubiquitin to protein and is recognized by proteosome | | 80 |
| 7779586243 | Exothermic/ exergonic | energy is released, -deltaG= favorable interactions/ spontaneous | | 81 |
| 7779596170 | Endothermic/ endergonic | energy is absorbed, +deltaG= unfavorable interactions/ non spontaneous | | 82 |
| 7779602050 | Coupled Reaction | really need this reaction bu it's endergonic so we add energy and total deltaG becomes negative after the 2 reax. are combined | | 83 |
| 7779623785 | Big Pic on Energy and Metabolism | 1) Start w/ high energy fuels
2) Break them down in a series of mostly exergonic reax.
3) Going to "capture" released energy from these reax. and couple it to an otherwise unfavorable forward reax. (ADP + P--> ATP)
4) Now we have lots of ATP which we can use as "energy packets: | | 84 |
| 7779649402 | Activation Energy | initiates reax.; how big activation energy is determines the rate at which reax. proceeds | | 85 |
| 7779661635 | Catalysts | enzymes speed up reax. by reducing activation energy; substrates enter active site on enzyme, substrates held in by WEAK FORCES, active site lowers Ea, substrates become products, products released, active site has changed and is ready for new substrates | | 86 |
| 7779691993 | Glycolysis | breaks down glucose and harvests energy in it to drive ADP + P--> ATP (breakdown of glucose is a
-deltaG reax) | | 87 |
| 7779697958 | Aerobic | cellular respiration, complete oxidation, waste= H2O and CO2, net energy trapped= 32 ATP | | 88 |
| 7779703488 | Anaerobic | fermentation, incomplete oxidation, waste=organic compound +CO2, Net energy trapped= 2 ATP | | 89 |
| 7779721524 | Oxidation / Reduction reax. | coupled; charged atom has high energy (reducing agent) --> oxidized= loses electrons, reduced=gaining electrons | | 90 |
| 7779743552 | How to get energy from food to make ATP? | 1) Food--> monomers in digestive
2) Monomers (ex. glucose) enter cells | | 91 |
| 7779790633 | Glycolysis Net Total | Glucose--> 2 Pyruvate + 2H2O
4 ATP formed- 2 ATP used--> 2 ATP
2 NAD+ + 4e- +4H+ --> 2NADH +2H+ | | 92 |
| 7779798671 | NAD | an electron carrier that works by "redox"; NADH is the high energy form | | 93 |
| 7779821543 | Citric Acid Cycle | in mitochondrial matrix; releases much more free energy than glycolysis; produces NADH, FADH, ATP, and CO2 oxidation; all of the C's in glucose are oxidized; only produced 1 ATP | | 94 |
| 7787142155 | How many ATP's come from one NAD+? | 3 ATP | | 95 |
| 7787142878 | How many NAD+ are used in the electron transport/ oxidative phosphorylation? | 3 NAD+ | | 96 |
| 7787145184 | How many ATP's made from FAD? | 2 ATP | | 97 |
| 7787152082 | WHat was the point of the Meselson-Stahl experiment? | do the 2 strands of DNA separate from one another during replication? | | 98 |
| 7787170255 | ATP--> ADP + P produces what deltaG? | negative | | 99 |
| 7787208030 | Purpose of Hershey-Chase experiment? | to determine if DNA or protein is the genetic material | | 100 |
| 7787231359 | Which end is a nucleotide added to a growing chain? | 3' end | | 101 |
| 7787239183 | Max Number of amino acids on single tRNA before its arrival at the ribosome? | 1 | | 102 |
| 7787256832 | Which part of DNA became radioactive during the Hershey-Chase experiment, when P32 was used? | backbone of DNA | | 103 |
| 7787268237 | Glycerol is involved in the synthesis of which macromolecule? | Lipids | | 104 |
| 7787274167 | In which process would an error cause the greatest long-term consequences? | Replication | | 105 |
| 7790843490 | How many ATP's does it take to synthesize a triglyceride? | 3 ATP's | | 106 |
| 7791989312 | WHat kind of bond holds together beta-sheet in proteins? | Hydrogen bonds | | 107 |
| 7792827241 | Polysomes | mRNA with ribosomes | | 108 |
| 7792905450 | DNA double helix held together by: | H-bonds | | 109 |
| 7792988769 | WHen does denaturation occur in proteins? | secondary & tertiary | | 110 |
