| 588139887 | Sociological perspective | understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context | | 0 |
| 588139888 | Society | people who share a culture and a territory | | 1 |
| 588139889 | Social location | the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society | | 2 |
| 588139890 | Science | the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge obtained by those methods | | 3 |
| 588139891 | Natural sciences | the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environment | | 4 |
| 588139892 | Social sciences | the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations | | 5 |
| 588139893 | Generalization | a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation | | 6 |
| 588139894 | Common sense | those things that "everyone knows" are true | | 7 |
| 588139895 | [the] scientific method | the use of objective systematic observations to test theories | | 8 |
| 588139896 | Positivism | the application of the scientific approach to the social world | | 9 |
| 588139897 | Sociology | the scientific study of society and human behavior | | 10 |
| 588139898 | Class conflict | Marx's term for the struggle between capitalists and workers | | 11 |
| 588139899 | Bourgeoisie | Marx's term for capitalists, those who own the means of production | | 12 |
| 588139900 | Proletariat | Marx's term for exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production | | 13 |
| 588139901 | Social integration | the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion | | 14 |
| 588139902 | Value free | the view that a sociologist's personal values or biases should not influence social research | | 15 |
| 588139903 | Values | the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly | | 16 |
| 588139904 | Objectivity | value neutrality in research | | 17 |
| 588139905 | Replication | the repetition of a study in order to test its findings | | 18 |
| 588139906 | Verstehen | a German word by used Weber that is perhaps best understood as "to have sight into someone's situation" | | 19 |
| 588139907 | Subjective meanings | the meanings that people give their own behavior | | 20 |
| 588139908 | Social facts | Durkheim's term for a group's patterns of behavior | | 21 |
| 588139909 | Basic (or pure) sociology | sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups | | 22 |
| 588139910 | Applied sociology | the use of sociology to solve problems - from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of global pollution | | 23 |
| 588139911 | Theory | the statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another | | 24 |
| 588139912 | Symbolic interactionism | a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another | | 25 |
| 588139913 | Functional analysis | a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism | | 26 |
| 588139914 | Conflict theory | a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources | | 27 |
| 588139915 | Macro-level analysis | an examination of large-scale patterns of society | | 28 |
| 588139916 | Micro-level analysis | an examination of small-scale patterns of society | | 29 |
| 588139917 | Social interaction | what people so when they are in one another's presence | | 30 |
| 588139918 | Nonverbal interaction | communication without words through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on | | 31 |
| 588139919 | Public sociology | sociology being used for the public good; especially the sociological perspective (of how things are related to one another) guiding politicians and policy makers | | 32 |
| 588139920 | Globalization of capitalism | capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe's dominant economic system | | 33 |
| 588139921 | Hypothesis | a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another; often according to predictions from a theory | | 34 |
| 588139922 | Variable | a factor thought to be significant for human behavior; which can vary (or change) form one case to another | | 35 |
| 588139923 | Operational definition | the way in which a researcher measures a variable | | 36 |
| 588139924 | Research method (or research design) | one of the seven procedures that sociologists use to collect data; surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, documents, experiments, and unobtrusive measures | | 37 |
| 588139925 | Validity | the extent to which an operational definition measures what it is intended to measure | | 38 |
| 588139926 | Reliability | the extent to which research produces consistent or dependable results | | 39 |
| 588139927 | Replication | the repetition of study in order to test its findings | | 40 |
| 588139928 | Survey | the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions | | 41 |
| 588139929 | Population | a target group to be studied | | 42 |
| 588139930 | Sample | the individuals intended to represent the population to be studied | | 43 |
| 588139931 | Random sample | a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study | | 44 |
| 588139932 | Stratified random sample | a sample from select subgroups of the target population in which everyone in the subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the research | | 45 |
| 588139933 | Respondents | people who respond to a survey, either in interview or by self-administered questionnaires | | 46 |
| 588139934 | Questionnaires | a list of questions to be asked of respondents | | 47 |
| 588139935 | Self-administered questionnaires | questionnaires that respondents fill out | | 48 |
| 588139936 | Interview | direct questioning of respondents | | 49 |
| 588139937 | Interviewer bias | effects that interviewers have on respondents that lead to biased answers | | 50 |
| 588139938 | Structured interviews | interviews that used closed-ended questions | | 51 |
| 588139939 | Closed-ended questions | questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent | | 52 |
| 588139940 | Unstructured interviews | interviews that use open-ended questions | | 53 |
| 588139941 | Open-ended questions | questions that respondents answer in their own words | | 54 |
| 588139942 | Rapport | a feeling of trust between researchers and people they are studying | | 55 |
| 588139943 | Participant observation (or fieldwork) | research in which the researcher participates in research setting while observing what is happening in that setting | | 56 |
| 588139944 | Generalizability | the extent to which the findings of one group (or sample) can be generalized or applied to other groups (or populations) | | 57 |
| 588139945 | Case study | an analysis of a single event, situation, or individual | | 58 |
| 588139946 | Secondary analysis | the analysis of data that have been collected by other researchers | | 59 |
| 588139947 | Documents | in its narrow sense, written source that provide data; in its extended sense, archival material of any sort, including photographs, movies, CDs, DVDs, and so on | | 60 |
| 588139948 | Experiment | the use of control and experimental groups and dependant and independent variables to test causation | | 61 |
| 588139949 | Experimental group | the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable | | 62 |
| 588139950 | Control group | the subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable | | 63 |
| 588139951 | Independent variable | a factor that causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable | | 64 |
| 588139952 | Dependent variable | a factor in an experiment that is changed by an independent variable | | 65 |
| 588139953 | Unobtrusive measures | ways of observing people so they do not know they are being studied | | 66 |
| 588139954 | Culture | the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next | | 67 |
| 588139955 | Material culture | the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry | | 68 |
| 588139956 | Nonmaterial culture | (also called symbolic culture) a group's way of thinking (including its beliefs, values, and other assumptions about the world) and doing (its common patterns of behavior, including language and other forms of interaction) | | 69 |
| 588139957 | Patterns | recurring characteristics or events | | 70 |
| 588139958 | Culture shock | the disorientation people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life | | 71 |
| 588139959 | Ethnocentrism | the use of one's own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors | | 72 |
| 588139960 | Cultural relativism | not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms | | 73 |
| 588139961 | Symbolic culture | another term for nonmaterial culture | | 74 |
| 588139962 | Symbol | something to which people attach meanings and then use to communicate with others | | 75 |
| 588139963 | Gestures | the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another | | 76 |
| 588139964 | Language | a system of symbols that can me combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought | | 77 |
| 588139965 | Sapir-Whorf hypothesis | Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis that language creates ways of thinking and perceiving | | 78 |
| 588139966 | Values | the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly | | 79 |
| 588139967 | Norms | expectations, or rules of behavior, that reflect and enforce behavior | | 80 |
| 588139968 | Sanctions | either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them | | 81 |
| 588139969 | Positive sanctions | a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward | | 82 |
| 588139970 | Negative sanctions | an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence or execution | | 83 |
| 588139971 | Folkways | norms that are not strictly enforced | | 84 |
| 588139972 | Mores | norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values or to the well-being of the group | | 85 |
| 588139973 | Taboo | a norm so strong that it brings extreme sanctions and even revulsion if someone violates it | | 86 |
| 588139974 | Subculture | the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world | | 87 |
| 588139975 | Counterculture | a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture | | 88 |
| 588139976 | Pluralistic society | a society made up of many different groups, with contrasting values and orientations to life | | 89 |
| 588139977 | Value cluster | values that together form a larger whole | | 90 |
| 588139978 | Value contradiction | values that contradict one another; to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other | | 91 |
| 588139979 | Ideal culture | a people's ideal values and norms; the goals held out for them | | 92 |
| 588139980 | Real culture | the norms and values that people actually follow | | 93 |
| 588139981 | Cultural universal | a value, norm or other cultural trait that is found in every group | | 94 |
| 588139982 | Sociobiology | a framework of thought that views human behavior as a result of natural selection and considers biological factors to be the fundamental cause of human behavior | | 95 |
| 588139983 | Technology | in its narrow sense, tools; it broader sense includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools | | 96 |
| 588139984 | New technology | the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life | | 97 |
| 588139985 | Cultural lag | Ogburn's term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations | | 98 |
| 588139986 | Cultural diffusion | the spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both material and nonmaterial cultural traits | | 99 |
| 588139987 | Cultural leveling | the process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially to the process by which Western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations | | 100 |
| 588139988 | Social environment | the entire human environment, including direct contact with others | | 101 |
| 588139989 | Feral children | children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness, isolated from humans | | 102 |
| 588139990 | Socialization | the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group - the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them | | 103 |
| 588139991 | Self | the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves "from the outside;" the views we internalize of how others see us | | 104 |
| 588139992 | Looking-glass self | a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us | | 105 |
| 588139993 | Taking the role of the other | putting oneself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating how the person will act | | 106 |
| 588139994 | Significant other | an individual who significantly influences someone else's life | | 107 |
| 588139995 | Generalized other | the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general;" the child's ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self | | 108 |
| 588139996 | Id | Freud's term for our inborn basic drives | | 109 |
| 588139997 | Ego | Freud's term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society | | 110 |
| 588139998 | Superego | Freud's term for the conscience; the internalized norms and values of our social groups | | 111 |
| 588139999 | Gender | the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its male and females; masculinity or femininity | | 112 |
| 588140000 | Gender socialization | the ways in which society sets children on a different path in life because they are male or female | | 113 |
| 588140001 | Peer group | a group of individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests | | 114 |
| 588140002 | Mass media | forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, television, and blogs that are directed to mass audiences | | 115 |
| 588140003 | Gender role | the behaviors and attitudes expected for people because they are female or male | | 116 |
| 588140004 | Agents of socialization | individuals or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors or other orientations toward life | | 117 |
| 588140005 | Manifest functions | the intended beneficial consequences of people's actions | | 118 |
| 588140006 | Latent functions | unintended beneficial consequences of people's actions | | 119 |
| 588140007 | Anticipatory socialization | the process of learning in advance an anticipated future role or status | | 120 |
| 588140008 | Resocialization | the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes and behaviors | | 121 |
| 588140009 | Total institution | a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, in which people are cut off from the rest of society and society is mostly cut off from them | | 122 |
| 588140010 | Degradation ceremony | a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to strip away someone's position (social status); in doing so, a new social and self-identity is stamped on the individual | | 123 |
| 588140011 | Life course | the stages of our life as we go from birth to death | | 124 |
| 588140012 | Transitional adulthood | a term that refers to a period following high school when young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood; also called adultolescence | | 125 |
| 588140013 | Macrosociology | analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theorists | | 126 |
| 588140014 | Microsociology | analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists | | 127 |
| 588140015 | Social interaction | what people do when they are in one another's company | | 128 |
| 588140016 | Social structure | the framework (or typical patterns) that surrounds us, consisting of the relationships of people and groups to one another; which gives direction to and sets limits on behavior | | 129 |
| 588140017 | Social class | according to Weber, a large group pf people who rank close to one another in property, power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means or production or workers who sell their labor | | 130 |
| 588140018 | Status | the position that someone occupies in a social group | | 131 |
| 588140019 | Status set | all statuses or positions that an individual occupies | | 132 |
| 588140020 | Ascribed status | a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life | | 133 |
| 588140021 | Achieved status | a position that is earned, accomplished or involves at least some effort or activity on the individual's part | | 134 |
| 588140022 | Status symbols | items used to identify a status | | 135 |
| 588140023 | Master status | a status that cuts across the other statuses that an individual occupies | | 136 |
| 588140024 | Status inconsistency | ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others, also called status discrepancy | | 137 |
| 588140025 | Socialization | the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group - the knowledge, sills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them | | 138 |
| 588140026 | Group | people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group | | 139 |
| 588140027 | Social institution | the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs | | 140 |
| 588140028 | Social integration | the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion | | 141 |
| 588140029 | Mechanical solidarity | Durkheim's term for the unity (a shared consciousness) that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks | | 142 |
| 588140030 | Division of labor | the splitting of a group's or society's tasks into specialties | | 143 |
| 588140031 | Organic solidarity | Durkheim's term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; people depending on others to fulfill their jobs | | 144 |
| 588140032 | Gemeinschaft | a type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness | | 145 |
| 588140033 | Gesellschaft | a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest | | 146 |
| 588140034 | Stereotype | assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false | | 147 |
| 588140035 | Body language | the ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others | | 148 |
| 588140036 | Dramaturgy | an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman, in which the social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage; also called dramaturgical analysis | | 149 |
| 588140037 | Impression management | people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them | | 150 |
| 588140038 | Front stage | places where we give performances | | 151 |
| 588140039 | Back stage | places where people rest from their performances, discuss their presentations, and plan future performances | | 152 |
| 588140040 | Role performance | the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides showing a particular "style" or "personality" | | 153 |
| 588306490 | Role conflict | conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role | | 154 |
| 588306491 | Role strain | conflicts that someone feels within a role | | 155 |
| 588306492 | Sign-vehicle | a term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self | | 156 |
| 588306493 | Teamwork | the collaboration of two or more people to manage impressions jointly | | 157 |
| 588306494 | Face-saving behavior | techniques used to salvage a performance (interaction) that is going sour | | 158 |
| 588306495 | Ethnomethodology | the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life | | 159 |
| 588306496 | Background assumption | a deeply embedded common understanding of how the world operates and of how people ought to act | | 160 |
| 588306497 | Social construction of reality | the use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real | | 161 |
| 588306498 | Group | people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called social group | | 162 |
| 588306499 | Society | people who share a culture and a territory | | 163 |
| 588306500 | Hunting and gathering society | a human group that depends on hunting and gathering for its survival | | 164 |
| 588306501 | Shaman | the healing specialist of a tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a disease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor | | 165 |
| 588306502 | Pastoral society | a society based on the pasturing of animals | | 166 |
| 588306503 | Horticultural society | a society based on cultivating plants by the use of hand tools | | 167 |
| 588306504 | Domestication revolution | the first social revolution, based on the domestication off plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies | | 168 |
| 588306505 | Agricultural revolution | the second revolution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies | | 169 |
| 588306506 | Agricultural society | a society based on large-scale agriculture | | 170 |
| 588306507 | Industrial Revolution | the third social revolution, occurring when machines powered by fuels replaced most animal and human power | | 171 |
| 588306508 | Industrial society | a society based on the use of machines powered by fuels | | 172 |
| 588306509 | Postindustrial (information) society | a society based on information services, and high technology rather than on raw materials and manufacturing | | 173 |
| 588306510 | Biotech society | a society whose economy increasingly centers on the application of genetics to produce medicine, food, and material | | 174 |
| 588306511 | Aggregate | individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who so not see themselves as belonging together | | 175 |
| 588306512 | Category | people who have similar characteristics | | 176 |
| 588306513 | Primary group | a group characterized by intimate, long term, face-to-face association and cooperation | | 177 |
| 588306514 | Secondary group | compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal and impersonal group based on some interest or activity | | 178 |
| 588306515 | In-groups | groups toward which people feel loyal | | 179 |
| 588306516 | Out-groups | groups toward which people feel antagonism | | 180 |
| 588306517 | Reference group | a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves | | 181 |
| 588306518 | Social network | the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together | | 182 |
| 588384929 | Clique | a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another | | 183 |
| 588384930 | Electronic community | individuals who regularly interact with one another on the internet and who think of themselves as belonging together | | 184 |
| 588384931 | Group dynamics | the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals | | 185 |
| 588384932 | Small group | a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members | | 186 |
| 588384933 | Dyad | the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons | | 187 |
| 588384934 | Triad | a group of three people | | 188 |
| 588384935 | Coalition | the alignment of some members of a group against others | | 189 |
| 588384936 | Leader | someone who influences other people | | 190 |
| 588384937 | Instrumental leader | an individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader | | 191 |
| 588384938 | Expressive leader | an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader | | 192 |
| 588384939 | Leadership styles | ways in which people express their leadership | | 193 |
| 588384940 | Authoritarian leader | an individual who leads by giving orders | | 194 |
| 588384941 | Democratic leader | an individual who leads by trying o reach a consensus | | 195 |
| 588384942 | Laissez-faire leader | an individual who leads by being highly permissive | | 196 |
| 588384943 | Groupthink | a narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct | | 197 |
| 588384944 | Rationality | using rules, efficiency, and practical results to determine human affairs | | 198 |
| 588384945 | Traditional society | a society in which the past is thought to be the best guide for the present; characterizes tribal, peasant, and feudal societies | | 199 |
| 588537206 | [The] rationalization of society | a widespread acceptance of rationality and social organizations that are built largely around this idea | | 200 |
| 588537207 | Capitalism | an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition | | 201 |
| 588537208 | Formal organization | a secondary group designed to achieve explicit objectives | | 202 |
| 588537209 | Bureaucracy | a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records | | 203 |
| 588537210 | [The] McDonaldization of society | the process by which ordinary aspects of life are rationalized and efficiency comes to rule them, including such things as food preparation | | 204 |
| 588537211 | Alienation | Marx's term for workers' lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by their being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product, which leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness | | 205 |
| 588537212 | Peter principle | a tongue-in-cheek observation that the members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they can no longer do good work | | 206 |
| 588537213 | Goal displacement | an organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement | | 207 |
| 588537214 | Volunteer association | a group made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations | | 208 |
| 588544575 | [The] iron law of oligarchy | Robert Michels' term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite | | 209 |
| 588544576 | Humanizing a work setting | organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impeded human potential | | 210 |
| 588589400 | Deviance | the violation of norms (or rules or expectations) | | 211 |
| 588589401 | Crime | the violation of norms written into law | | 212 |
| 588589402 | Stigma | "blemishes" that discredit a person's claim to a "normal" identity | | 213 |
| 588687636 | Social order | a group's usual and customary social arrangements, on which is members depend and on which they base their lives | | 214 |
| 588687637 | Social control | a group's formal and informal means of enforcing its norms | | 215 |
| 588687638 | Negative sanction | an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence | | 216 |
| 588687639 | Positive sanction | a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward | | 217 |
| 588687640 | Genetic predisposition | inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts) | | 218 |
| 588687641 | Street crime | crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary | | 219 |
| 588687642 | Personality disorders | the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms | | 220 |
| 588744722 | Differential association | Edwin Sutherland's term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an "excess of definitions" of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant | | 221 |
| 588744723 | Control theory | the idea that two control systems - inner controls and outer controls - work against our tendencies to deviate | | 222 |
| 588744724 | Degradation ceremony | a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to reshape someone's self by stripping away that individual's self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place | | 223 |
| 588744725 | Labeling theory | the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity | | 224 |
| 588744726 | Techniques of neutralization | ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society's norms | | 225 |
| 588744727 | Cultural goals | the objectives held out as legitimate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve | | 226 |
| 588744728 | Institutionalized means | approved ways of reaching cultural goals | | 227 |
| 588948341 | Strain Theory | Robert Merton's term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success), but withholds from some the approved means of reaching that goal; one adaptation tot he strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal | | 228 |
| 588948342 | Illegitimate opportunity structure | opportunities for crimes that are woven into the texture of life | | 229 |
| 588948343 | White-collar crime | Edwin Sutherland's term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; for example, bribery of public officials, securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price fixing | | 230 |
| 588948344 | Corporate crime | crimes committed by executives in order to benefit their corporation | | 231 |
| 588948345 | Criminal justice system | the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime | | 232 |
| 588948346 | Recidivism rate | the proportion of released convicts who are rearrested | | 233 |
| 588948347 | Capital punishment | the death penalty | | 234 |
| 588948348 | Serial murder | the killing of several victims in three or more separate events | | 235 |
| 588948349 | Hate crime | a crime that is punished more severely because it is motivated by hate (dislike, hostility, animosity) of someone's race - ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability or national origin | | 236 |
| 588948350 | Police discretion | the practice of the police, in the normal course of their duties, to either arrest or ticket someone for an offense or to overlook the matter | | 237 |
| 588948351 | Medicalization of deviance | to make deviance a medical matter; a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians | | 238 |
| 588948352 | Social stratification | the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their prestige; applies to both nations and to people within a nation, society or other group | | 239 |
| 588948353 | Slavery | a form of social stratification in which some people own other people | | 240 |
| 588948354 | Bonded labor (indentured service) | a contractual system in which someone sells his or her body (services) for a specified period of time in an arrangement very close to slavery, except that it is entered into voluntarily | | 241 |
| 588948355 | Ideology | beliefs about the way things ought to be that justify social arrangements | | 242 |
| 588990024 | Caste system | a form of social stratification in which people's statuses are determined by birth and are lifelong | | 243 |
| 588990025 | Endogamy | the practice of marrying within one's own group | | 244 |
| 588990026 | Apartheid | the enforced separation of racial-ethnic groups as was in South Africa | | 245 |
| 588990027 | Estate stratification system | the stratification system of medieval Europe, consisting of three groups or estates: the nobility, clergy, and commoners | | 246 |
| 588990028 | Class system | a form of social stratification based primarily on the possession of money or material possessions | | 247 |
| 588990029 | Social mobility | movement up or down the social class ladder | | 248 |
| 588990030 | Means of production | the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth | | 249 |
| 588990031 | Class consciousness | Marx's term for awareness of a common identity based on one's position in the means of production | | 250 |
| 588990032 | False class consciousness | Marx's term to refer to workers identifying with the interests of capitalists | | 251 |
| 588990033 | Meritocracy | a form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit | | 252 |
| 588990034 | Divine right of kings | the idea that the king's authority comes from God; in an interesting gender bender, also applies to queens | | 253 |
| 588990035 | Colonialism | the process by which one nation takes over another nation, usually for the purpose of exploiting its labor and natural resources | | 254 |
| 589013181 | World system theory | economic and political connections that tie the world's countries together | | 255 |
| 589013182 | Globalization of capitalism | capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe's dominant economic system | | 256 |
| 589013183 | Cultural poverty | the assumption that the values and behaviors of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics to their children | | 257 |
| 589013184 | Neocolonialism | the economic and political dominance of the Least Industrialized Nations by the Most Industrialized Nations | | 258 |
| 589013185 | Multinational corporations | companies that operate across national boundaries; also called transitional corporations | | 259 |
| 589271754 | Property | material possessions: animals, bank accounts, bonds, buildings, businesses, cars, furniture, land, and stocks | | 260 |
| 589271755 | Wealth | the total value of everything someone owns, minus the debts | | 261 |
| 589271756 | Income | money received, usually from a job, business or assets | | 262 |
| 589271757 | Power | the ability to get your way, even over the resistance of others | | 263 |
| 589271758 | Power elite | C Wright Mill's term for the top people in US corporations, military, and politics who make the nation's major decisions | | 264 |
| 589271759 | Prestige | respect or regard | | 265 |
| 589271760 | Status consistency | ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class | | 266 |
| 589271761 | Status inconsistency | ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others; also called status discrepancy | | 267 |
| 589271762 | Status | the position that someone occupies in a social group | | 268 |
| 589271763 | Anomie | Durkheim's term for a condition of society in which people become detached from the norms that usually guide their behavior | | 269 |
| 589271764 | Contradictory class locations | Erik Wright's term for a position in the class structure that generates contradictory interests | | 270 |
| 589332998 | Underclass | a group of people for whom poverty persists year after year and across generations | | 271 |
| 589332999 | Intergenerational mobility | the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next | | 272 |
| 589333000 | Upward social mobility | movement up the social class ladder | | 273 |
| 589333001 | Downward social mobility | movement down the social class ladder | | 274 |
| 589333002 | Structural mobility | movement up or down the social class ladder that is due to changes in the structure of society, not to individual efforts | | 275 |
| 589333003 | Exchange mobility | about the same numbers of people moving up and down the social class ladder, such that, on balance, the social class system shows little change | | 276 |
| 589340639 | Poverty line | the official measure of poverty, calculated to include incomes that are less than three times the low cost food budget | | 277 |
| 589340640 | [The] Feminization of poverty | refers t situation that most poor families in the US are headed by women | | 278 |
