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Biochemistry

carbohydrates_reading_wiley

Subject: 
Chemistry
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Chemistry
Carbohydrate chemistry
Nutrition
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Excipients
Carbohydrate
Glucose
Biochemistry
Oligosaccharide
Cellulose
Hydrolysis

Carbohydrates Robert J Sturgeon, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK The carbohydrates comprise one of the major groups of naturally occurring organic molecules and are amongst the most abundant constituents of plants, animals and microorganisms. In general, carbohydrates are polyhydroxy-aldehydes or-ketones. They may contain, in addition, amino, acetamido and carboxyl functional groups. Introduction The term carbohydrate includes monosaccharides, oligo- saccharides and polysaccharides. Also included are sub- stances derived from monosaccharides such as alditols, which are derived by reduction of the carbonyl group and carboxylic acids, which are derived by oxidation of one or more terminal groups. Replacement of a hydroxyl group with a hydrogen atom produces a deoxy-sugar and

respiration respiration

Subject: 
Biology
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Cellular respiration
Biology
Biochemistry
Chemistry
Glycolysis
Anaerobic respiration
Oxidative phosphorylation
Electron transport chain
Citric acid cycle
Crista
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate

1 B io F actsheet January 1998 Number 12 Respiration Aerobic respiration can be divided into four stages: 1. Glycolysis (G) 2. The Link reaction (LR) 3. Kreb?s cycle (K) 4. The electron transfer chain (ETC) These take place in different parts of the cell (Table 1) and the detailed biochemistry of these reactions is shown overleaf. Respiratory quotients The respiratory quotient (RQ) is defined as the ratio of carbon dioxide produced to oxygen consumed per unit time by an organism: volume of CO2 produced volume of O2 consumed Different substances give different RQ values Cellular respiration is the process by which the energy contained in organic molecules is made available for all of the active

Campbell Biology 9th Edition Chapter 5

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Biology
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Chemistry
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Biochemistry
Molecular biology
Molecules
Nitrogen cycle
Biomolecule
Backbone chain
Amino acid
Protein structure

LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE Primary Structure?the unique sequence of amino acids, type sequence and number; determines the other three structures It is held together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amino group of another amino acid B. Secondary Structure? regular repeated coiling and folding of the polypeptide caused by H?bonds between atoms in the polypeptide backbone (a hydrogen on a nitrogen and a double?bonded oxygen atom) see Fig. 5.20 p. 76 a. alpha helix? a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth peptide bond b. Beta pleated sheet? where regions of the chain lie parallel to each other LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE

Ap bio cell respiration4 ppt

Subject: 
Biology
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Cellular respiration
Biology
Biochemistry
Cell biology
Electron transport chain
Oxidative phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis
Crista
Mitochondrion
Cytochrome c oxidase
Adenosine triphosphate
Intermembrane space

Cellular Respiration Stage 4: Electron Transport Chain Cellular respiration What?s the point? The point is to make ATP! ATP ATP accounting so far? Glycolysis ? 2 ATP Kreb?s cycle ? 2 ATP Life takes a lot of energy to run, need to extract more energy than 4 ATP! A working muscle recycles over 10 million ATPs per second There?s got to be a better way! I need a lot more ATP! There is a better way! Electron Transport Chain series of proteins built into inner mitochondrial membrane along cristae transport proteins & enzymes transport of electrons down ETC linked to pumping of H+ to create H+ gradient yields ~36 ATP from 1 glucose! only in presence of O2 (aerobic respiration) O2 That sounds more like it! Mitochondria Double membrane outer membrane inner membrane

Ap bio cell respiration3 ppt

Subject: 
Biology
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Cellular respiration
Biology
Biochemistry
Metabolism
Citric acid cycle
Glycolysis
Adenosine triphosphate
Acetyl-CoA
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrial matrix
Electron transport chain
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Overview 10 reactions convert glucose (6C) to 2 pyruvate (3C) produces: 4 ATP & 2 NADH consumes: 2 ATP net: 2 ATP & 2 NADH glucose C-C-C-C-C-C fructose-1,6bP P-C-C-C-C-C-C-P DHAP P-C-C-C G3P C-C-C-P pyruvate C-C-C ATP 2 ADP 2 ATP 4 ADP 4 NAD+ 2 2 2Pi 2Pi 2H Cellular Respiration Stage 2 & 3: Oxidation of Pyruvate Krebs Cycle Glycolysis is only the start Glycolysis Pyruvate has more energy to yield 3 more C to strip off (to oxidize) if O2 is available, pyruvate enters mitochondria enzymes of Krebs cycle complete the full oxidation of sugar to CO2 pyruvate ? ? ? ? ? ? CO2 2x 6C 3C glucose ? ? ? ? ? pyruvate 3C 1C Cellular respiration Mitochondria ??Structure Double membrane energy harvesting organelle smooth outer membrane highly folded inner membrane cristae

Ap bio cell respiration2 ppt

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Biology
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Biochemistry
Biology
Chemistry
Cellular respiration
Metabolism
Exercise physiology
Organophosphates
Metabolic pathways
Glycolysis
Substrate-level phosphorylation
1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
Ethanol fermentation

Cellular Respiration Stage 1: Glycolysis What?s the point? The point is to make ATP! ATP Glycolysis Breaking down glucose ?glyco ? lysis? (splitting sugar) ancient pathway which harvests energy where energy transfer first evolved transfer energy from organic molecules to ATP still is starting point for ALL cellular respiration but it?s inefficient generate only 2 ATP for every 1 glucose occurs in cytosol glucose ? ? ? ? ? pyruvate 2x 6C 3C In the cytosol? Why does that make evolutionary sense? That?s not enough ATP for me! Evolutionary perspective Prokaryotes first cells had no organelles Anaerobic atmosphere life on Earth first evolved without free oxygen (O2) in atmosphere energy had to be captured from organic molecules in absence of O2

Ap bio cell respiration1 ppt

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Biology
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Biology
Cellular respiration
Biochemistry
Redox
Electron transport chain
Bioenergetics
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
Anaerobic respiration
Cofactor
Metabolism

Cellular Respiration Harvesting Chemical Energy ATP What?s the point? The point is to make ATP! ATP Harvesting stored energy Energy is stored in organic molecules carbohydrates, fats, proteins Heterotrophs eat these organic molecules ? food digest organic molecules to get? raw materials for synthesis fuels for energy controlled release of energy ?burning? fuels in a series of step-by-step enzyme-controlled reactions Harvesting stored energy Glucose is the model catabolism of glucose to produce ATP C6H12O6 6O2 ATP 6H2O 6CO2 ? + + + CO2 + H2O + heat fuel (carbohydrates) COMBUSTION = making a lot of heat energy by burning fuels in one step RESPIRATION = making ATP (& some heat) by burning fuels in many small steps CO2 + H2O + ATP (+ heat) ATP glucose

AP bio macromolecules ppt

Subject: 
Biology
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Chemistry
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Nutrition
Molecular biology
Nitrogen cycle
Polymer chemistry
Amino acid
Zwitterions
Biochemistry
Monomer
Glucose
Acid

* Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules * The Molecules of Life Overview: Another level in the hierarchy of biological organization is reached when small organic molecules are joined together Atom ---> molecule ---? compound * Macromolecules Are large molecules composed of smaller molecules Are complex in their structures Figure 5.1 * Macromolecules Most macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers Four classes of life?s organic molecules are polymers Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids Lipids * A polymer Is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called monomers Specific monomers make up each macromolecule E.g. amino acids are the monomers for proteins * The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

Ap bio Organic Chemistry ppt

Subject: 
Biology
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Chemistry
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Genetics
Biotechnology
Polymer chemistry
Biochemistry
Backbone chain
Nucleic acid
Biomolecule
Metabolism

Organic Compounds The Structure and Function of Macromolecules Biological Molecules The study of carbon compounds, organic chemistry, focuses on any compound with carbon (organic compounds) Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules that distinguish living matter from inorganic material are all composed of carbon atoms bonded to each other and to atoms of other elements Carbon Atoms Carbon is building block of molecules Carbon has 4 valence electrons Can form 4 covalent bonds Tetravalence by carbon makes large, complex molecules possible Carbon Skeletons Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules The skeletons may vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings. The carbon skeletons may include double bonds.

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