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AP Biology Unit 2 Flashcards

Membrane Structure and Function

7436422938	Explain the meaning of the statement that phospholipids and most other membrane constituents are amphipathic molecules.	Most molecules are amphipathic molecules because phospholipids are both hydrophobic and hydrophilic on the bilayer, due to the heads being hydrophilic and tails being hydrophobic.	0
7436422940	Fluid mosaic model	The structure of biological membranes consists of various proteins that are attached to or embedded in a bilayer of amphipathic phospholipids.	1
7436422941	Explain how the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure explains each experimental finding: a) Membranes with different functions may differ in type and number of membrane proteins. b) Membrane proteins are not very water-soluble.	A) Each membrane has its own unique complement of membrane proteins, which determine most of the specific functions of that membrane. B) Membrane proteins are not very water-soluble because they are impermeable to most hydrophilic molecules.	2
7436422942	Integral proteins	Often extend through the membrane (transmembrane), with two hydrophilic ends. The hydrophobic midsection usually consists of one or more alpha helical stretches of hydrophobic amino acids.	3
7436422943	Peripheral proteins	Attached to the surface of the membrane, often to integral proteins. Attachments of membrane proteins to the cytoskeleton on the cytoplasmic side and fibers of the extracellular matrix on the exterior provide a supportive framework for the plasma membrane.	4
7436422944	Distinguish between peripheral and integral membrane proteins.	Peripheral: Provides the framework for the plasma membrane and is attached to integral protein. Integral: Go through the membrane with two hydrophilic ends.	5
7436422946	List six major functions of membrane proteins.	1. Transport 2. Enzymatic activity 3. Cell-cell recognition 4. Intercellular joining 5. Signal transduction 6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix	6
7436422948	Glycoprotein	A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.	7
7436422949	Transport protein	A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.	8
7436422950	Aquaporin	Facilitate water passage	9
7436422951	Explain the role of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell recognition (glycoproteins).	The ability of a cell to distinguish other cells based on recognition of membrane carbohydrates. The glycolipids and glycoproteins attached to the outside of plasma membranes varies.	10
7436422953	Concentration gradient	A region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases.	11
7436422954	Passive transport	When the cell does not expend energy when substances diffuse down their concentration gradient.	12
7436422956	Tonicity	The tendency of a cell to gain or lose water in a given solution, is affected by the relative concentrations of solutes that cannot cross the membrane in the solution and in the cell.	13
7436422960	Plasma membrane	A selective permeable membrane that permits a regular exchange od nutrients, wate products, oxygen, and inorganic ions.	14
7436422961	Explain how hydrophobic molecules cross cell membranes.	Cell membranes are made of a lipid bilayer, molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. These molecules arrange in parallel lines with the tails facing inwards towards each other and the heads facing outwards towards the water. Hydrophobic molecules are drawn into the lipid bilayer, trying to get away from the water.	15
7436422962	Facilitated diffusion	The diffusion of polar molecules and ions across a membrane with the aid of transport proteins, with either channel proteins or carrier proteins.	16
7436422963	Ion channel	A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to flow across the membrane down its concentration gradient.	17
7436422964	Active transport	Requiring the expenditure of energy to transport a solute against its concentration gradient; essential for a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules that differ from environmental concentrations. The movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient; mediated by specific transport proteins.	18
7436422965	Sodium-potassium pump	Exchanges N+ and K+ across animal cell membranes, creating a higher concentration of potassium ions and lower concentrations of sodium ions within the cell.	19
7436422966	Membrane potential	A voltage across the plasma membrane due to the unequal distribution of ions.	20
7436422967	Electrochemical gradient	Combination of chemical force (the ion's concentration gradient) and electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement).	21
7436422968	Electrogenic pump	Membrane proteins that generate voltage across a membrane by the active transport o ions.	22
7436422969	Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins.	Channel proteins: Hydrophobic pathways through a membrane are provided for specific molecules, such as aquaporins, which facilitate water passage. Carrier proteins: Physically bind and transport a specific molecule.	23
7436422970	Define diffusion. Explain why diffusion is a passive and spontaneous process.	Diffusion: The movement of a substance down its concentration gradient due to random thermal motion. Diffusion is a passive and spontaneous process because one solute is unaffected by the concentration gradients of other solutes and the cell does not expend energy when substances diffuse down their concentration gradient.	24
7436422971	Explain why a concentration gradient of a substance across a membrane represents potential energy.	The concentration gradient of a substance across a membrane represents potential energy because it drives diffusion.	25
7436422972	Distinguish between solutions that are hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic to cell contents.	Hypertonic: When the cell loses water and shrivels. Hypotonic: When the cell gains too much water, swell, and possibly lyse (burst). Isotonic: Equilibrium; when the cell neither gains or lose water.	26
7436422973	Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based on differences on solute concentrations.	Osmosis: The diffusion if water across a selectively permeable membrane. The direction of water movement based on differences on solute concentrations depends on how the water diffuses down its own concentration.	27
7436422974	Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion.	Transport proteins aids the diffusion of ions and polar molecules to move across the plasma membrane.	28
7436422975	Distinguish between osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.	Osmosis: The diffusion if water across a selectively permeable membrane. Facilitated diffusion: The diffusion of polar molecules and ions across a membrane with the aid of transport proteins, with either channel proteins or carrier proteins. Active transport: The movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient; mediated by specific transport proteins.	29
7436422976	Describe the two forces that combine to produce an electrochemical gradient.	Combination of chemical force (the ion's concentration gradient) and electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement).	30
7436422977	Explain how an electrogenic pump creates voltage across a membrane. Name two electrogenic pumps.	Active transport and sodium-potassium pump	31
7436422978	Describe the process of cotransport.	A mechanism through which the active transport of solute is indirectly driven by an ATP-powered pump that transports another substance against its gradient. As that transported substance then diffuses back down down its concentration gradient through a contransporter, the solute is carried against its concentration gradient across the membrane.	32
7436422979	How are large molecules are transported across a cell membrane?	The process of exocytosis secretes large molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.	33
7436422980	Distinguish between exocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.	Exocytosis: The cell secretes large molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Allows a cell to acquire specific substances from extracellular fluid.	34
7436422985	Receptor-mediated endocytosis	Allows a cell to acquire specific substances from extracellular fluid.	35
7436422986	Ligands	Molecules that bind specifically to receptor sites, attach to proteins usually clustered in coated pits on the cell surface and are carried into the cell when a vesicle forms.	36
7436422987	Proton pump	Transports H+ out of the cell generates voltage across membranes on plants, fungi, and bacteria.	37
7436422988	polymer	A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together	38
7436422989	monomer	The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer	39
7436422990	double helix	The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape	40
7436422991	RNA	A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses	41
7436422992	DNA	A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins	42
7436422993	condensation reaction	A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water; also called dehydration reaction	43
7436422994	dehydration reaction	A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule	44
7436422995	starch	A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose	45
7436422996	glycogen	An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch	46
7436422997	nucleotide	The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous bas and a phosphate group	47
7436422998	monosaccharide	The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of monosaccharides are generally some multiple of CH20	48
7436422999	fatty acid	a long carbon chain carboxylic acid. fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat	49
7436423000	steroid	a type of lipid that consists of four carbon rings to which various functional groups are attached	50
7436423001	cholesterol	A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids	51
7436423002	polysaccharide	A polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by condensation reactions	52
7436423003	carbohydrate	A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).	53
7436423004	triacylglycerol	Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule	54
7436423005	nucleic acid	A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA	55
7436423006	gene	A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses)	56
7436423007	disaccharide	A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis	57
7436423008	hydrolysis	A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water; an essential process in digestion	58
7436423009	lipid	One of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water	59
7436423010	alpha helix	A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure	60
7436423011	pyrimidine	one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)	61
7436423012	ribose	The sugar component of RNA	62
7436423013	cellulose	A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages	63
7436423014	chitin	A structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods	64
7436423015	peptide bond	the covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by condensation synthesis	65
7436423016	beta pleated sheet	One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds	66
7436423017	purine	a nitrogenous base that has a double-ring structure; one of the two general categories of nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA; either adenine or guanine	67
7436423018	protein	A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids	68
7436423019	polypeptide	A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds	69
7436423020	amino acid	An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins	70
7436423021	primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids	71
7436423022	cell	-the simplest collection of matter that can live -bound by plasma membrane -contains chromosomes	72
7436423023	Light Microscope	-magnifies effectively but has resolution issues -commonly used in lab -good for study of live cells -limited by the shortest wavelength of light used to illuminate the specimen	73
7436423024	magnification	ration of the object's image size to its real size	74
7436423025	resolution	a measure of the clarity of the image; the minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished	75
7436423026	Electron Microscope	-focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or into it's surface -have much shorter wavelengths than the wavelengths of visible light -reveals cell's ultrastructure -2 kinds scanning transmission	76
7436423027	Scanning Electron Microscope	provides a 3D image (microscope)	77
7436423028	Transmission Electron Microscope	-good for study of ultrastructure -uses energy beam -cannot look at living things	78
7436423029	cytosol	semi fluid within the membrane	79
7436423030	prokaryotic cell	-no nucleus -organisms of the domains bacteria and archaea -has nucleoid	80
7436423031	nucleiod	Region of prokaryotic cells where DNA is located	81
7436423032	cell wall	Plant Organelle: ridged outermost cell layer, made of cellulose, provides a sturdy area where cell can thrive	82
7436423033	eukaryotic cell	-true nucleus -protist, fungi, animal and plants -membranous nuclear envelope -bigger than prokaryotic cells	83
7436423034	cytoplasm	the entire region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane	84
7436423035	plasma membrane	functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire volume of the cell	85
7436423036	membrane	fundamental to the organization of the cell - generally consists of a double layer of phospholipids and other molecules (cholesterol, glyoproteins and glycolipids)	86
7436423037	central vacuole	storage unit (one of the largest in the cell) in plants to store water	87
7436423038	plasmodesmata	holes in the cell wall allowing entrance/exit from/to the cell	88
7436423039	nuclear envelope	encloses nucleus separating its contents from the cytoplasm the membrane is a lipid bilayer	89
7436423040	pore complex	intricate protein structure that regulates the entry and exit of certain large macromolecules and particles	90
7436423041	nuclear lamina	-lines nuclear side of envelope near the pores -net-like array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope	91
7436423042	chromosomes	structures that carry genetic info made of chromatin	92
7436423043	chromatin	a complex array of proteins and DNA coiled together	93
7436423044	nucleolus	a structure in the nucleus formed from various chromosomes -active in synthesis of ribosomes	94
7436423045	ribosomes	organelles that carry out protein synthesis -2parts large subunit small subunit -2 locations free bound	95
7436423046	free ribosomes	suspended in cytosol, makes whatever the cell needs	96
7436423047	bound ribosomes	attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope - makes specific proteins	97
7436423048	peroxisome	Organelle: uses enzymes to get rid of the metabolic wastes specifically hydrogen peroxide (numerous in the liver)	98
7436423049	mitochondria	Organelle: (power plant of the cell) takes organic material and turns it into ATP, can be thousands in a single cell	99
7436423050	lysosome	Organelle: aids in waste removal system of cells, puts dead bacteria, organelles, and other matter into a vacuole and fills it with digestive enzymes	100
7436423051	golgi apparatus	Organelle: "Fedex" of the cell. accepts the proteins, sorts them and then sends them where they need to go	101
7436423052	Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum	Organelle: produces lipids, metabolizes carbohydrates and concentrates calcium (makes phospholipids)	102
7436423053	Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum	Organelle: studded with ribosomes, makes transport proteins for the plasma membrane	103
7436423054	Ribosomes on ER	take info from mRNA, make proteins according to what the RNA says	104
7436423055	centrioles	Organelle: forms spindles that aid in the cellular division process, they grab chromosomes and separate them, only in animal cells	105
7436423056	centrisome	Organelle: creates microtubules	106
7436423057	cytoskeleton	Organelle: internal framework of the cell 3 Parts microfilaments intermediate filaments *microtubules	107
7436423058	microfilaments	thin but solid protein in cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells	108
7436423059	intermediate filaments	thicker than microfilaments, used more for structure	109
7436423060	microtubules	hollow but thick tube of protein in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and in cilia, flagella and cytoskeleton	110
7436423061	microvilli	Organelle: increases surface area, found in intestines and kidneys	111
7436423062	chloroplast	Plant Organelle: houses photosynthesis, produces ATP for the cell (similar to mitochondria)	112
7436423063	tonoplast	Plant Organelle: membranes that enclose the central vacuole	113
7436423064	central vacuole	Plant Organelle: enclosed sac found in mature plant cells, used for storage, breakdown of waste products and hydrolysis of macromolecules	114
7436423065	Selective Permeability	-Allows some substances to cross more easily than others -Gives cell the ability to discriminate in its chemical exchanges	115
7436423066	Plasma Membrane	-Blocks bad things from coming inside of the cell -Allows good things to pass through -Maintains homeostasis -Selectively permeable -Separate external environment from internal environment	116
7436423067	Amphipathic	-Molecules that have a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region -Ex: Phospholipids	117
7436423068	Gorter and Grendel Theory	-Cell membranes must be phospholipid bilayers -Double layer is a stable boundary due to the exposure of hydrophilic heads to water and the shelter of hydrophobic tails -Inaccuracies: surface of a membrane with pure phospholipids adheres less strongly to water than the surface of a biological membrane	118
7436423069	Davson and Danielli Theory	-Phospholipid bilayer between two layers of proteins (sandwich model) -Inaccuracies: generalized that all cell membranes are identical (membranes with different functions differ in chemical composition), membrane proteins not soluble in water because they are amphipathic	119
7436423070	Singer and Nicolson Theory	-Membrane proteins dispersed and individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer with the hydrophilic regions protruding -Inaccuracies: membranes are more mosaic than fluid and membrane contains more proteins	120
7436423071	Freeze Fracture Technique	-Splits a membrane along the middle of a phospholipid bilayer -Under a microscope, the interior appears cobblestoned with protein particles interspersed in the smooth matrix	121
7436423072	Fluidity of a Cell's Membrane	-Maintained by hydrophobic interactions -These interactions cause lipids and porteins to shift laterally -Regulated by temperature -Not all parts of the membrane are equally fluid -Saturated --> single bonds --> straight tails --> pack more tightly --> less fluidity -Unsaturated --> double bonds --> bends in tail --> looser packing --> greater fluidity	122
7436423073	Fluid Mosaic Model	-Phospholipids make a membrane fluid -Mosaic of protein islands embedded in it, floating and moving around -Overwhelmingly phospholipid, forming a relatively fluid-like substance	123
7436423074	Membrane Composition	-Two phospholipid tails made up of fatty acids -Tails move away from water -Phosphate based head faces away from the aqueous part of the cell -Spontaneous physical process	124
7436423075	Phospholipid Bilayer	-Tails facing each other creates a bilayer -Hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails attract and face each other in middle -Hydrophilic (polar) heads face outside of membrane	125
7436423076	Changes in Fluidity	-When temperature increases, it stays fluid for a longer amount of time -When cholesterol decreases, fluidity increases -Cholesterol acts as a temperature buffer -When unsaturated hydrocarbons increase, they prevent molecules from packing closely together, which enhances fluidity	126
7436423077	Effects of Cholesterol on Membrane Fluidity	-At warm temperatures, it restrains movement of phospholipids -At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing -Four ring structure adds kinks to the membrane	127
7436423078	Extracellular Matrix	-Interlocking mesh of fibrous proteins -Collagen, the most abundant protein in our body, makes it stiff -Cell to cell adhesion -Sends cell signals -Senses changes in local environment -Tells cell to change behavior -Active in cancers and tumors	128
7436423079	Integral Proteins	-Penetrate hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer -Pass all the way through the membrane -Includes nonpolar amino acids	129
7436423080	Peripheral Proteins	-Not embedded in the lipid bilayer -Only on one side -Found on edges of the bilayer -Loosely bound to the surface	130
7436423081	Types of Membrane Proteins	-Transport -Enzymatic -Signal -Cell-Cell recognition -Intercellular joining -Attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM	131
7436423082	Transport Protein	-Allows molecules to pass through the membrane -Provides hydrophilic channel across a membrane -Shuttles a substance from one side to another by changing shape -Includes ions and polar molecules	132
7436423083	Enzymatic Activity Protein	-Active site exposed to substances in adjacent solution -Carries out steps of metabolic pathway	133
7436423084	Signal Transduction Protein	-Binding site with chemical messenger -External messenger causes a shape change in the protein that relays message to the inside of a cell	134
7436423085	Cell-Cell Recognition Protein	-Identification tags that are recognized by the membranes of other cells	135
7436423086	Intercellular Joining Protein	-Proteins of adjacent cells hook together in junctions	136
7436423087	Attachment to the Cytoskeleton and ECM Protein	-Microfilaments noncovalently bond to membrane proteins, maintaining cell shape and stabilizing location of proteins -Mostly structural but still involve communication	137
7436423088	Glycoproteins and Glycolipids	-Distinguish neighboring cells from one another -Organ and tissue development -Rejection of foreign cells by immune system	138
7436423089	Glycolipids	-Membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids	139
7436423090	Glycoproteins	-Membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins	140
7436423091	Permeability and Transport	-Hydrophobic molecules can penetrate -Hydrophilic ionic, and large molecules cannot penetrate -Channel proteins allow hydrophilic molecules to pass through -Aquaporins allow water to pass through -Carrier proteins have specific shape to match the molecules they transport	141
7436423092	Channel Proteins	-Contain a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions can use as a tunnel through the membrane -Ex: aquaporins	142
7436423093	Carrier Proteins	-Hold onto passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane	143
7436423094	Membrane Sidedness	-Two lipid layers vary in lipid composition and each protein has a directional orientation in the membrane -Molecules that start on the inside face of the ER end up on the outside face of the plasma membrane -Determined by the ER and Golgi	144
7436423095	Aquaporins	-Allow entry of water molecules into the membrane -Allows water to permeate the membrane	145
7436423096	Diffusion	-Movement of molecules of any substance so that they are spread out evenly into the available space -Movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration -A form of passive transport because the cell does not have to use energy to make it happen -Ordered and well structured to less ordered -Occurs spontaneously	146
7436423097	Active Transport	-Movement of molecules opposite the direction of diffusion -More ordered and structured molecules requires the addition of energy -Pushes things opposite of the way they move naturally -Movement from low concentration to high concentration -Includes the Sodium Potassium pump and the Proton pump	147
7436423098	Concentration Gradient	-Potential energy	148
7436423099	Free Water Concentration	-Driving force in osmosis -Water diffuses across the membrane from the region of lower solute concentration until the solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal	149
7436423100	Water Balance in Cells Without a Wall (Animal Cells)	-In an isotonic environment, there is no water movement across the membrane -Cell loses water to surroundings in a hypertonic environment -Cell will lyse in a hypotonic environment -Cannot tolerate to little or too much water -Needs osmoregulation	150
7436423101	Water Balance in Cells With a Wall (Plant Cells)	-Hypotonic solution maintains water balance (turgid) -Isotonic: flaccid -Hypertonic causes the cell to shrivel (plasmolyze)	151
7436423102	Facilitated Diffusion	-Polar/ionic molecules impeded by the lipid bilayer of membrane diffuse passively with the help of transport proteins that span the membrane	152
7436423103	Ion Channels	-Stimulus allows for transport	153
7436423104	Gated Channels	-Open/close in response to stimulus	154
7436423105	Active Transport and ATP	-Transfers the terminal phosphate group directly to the transport protein -Induces protein to change shape -Ex: sodium potassium pump exchanges sodium for potassium across the plasma membrane	155
7436423106	Membrane Potential	-Voltage (electrical potential energy) across a membrane -Ranges from -50 to -200 millivolts	156
7436423107	Electrochemical Gradient	-Combination of chemical force (ion's concentration gradient) and electrical force (effect of membrane potential on ion's movement) -Drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane	157
7436423108	Electrogenic Pump	-Transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane	158
7436423109	Proton Pump	-Transports hydrogen ions (protons) out of the cell -Transfers positive charge from cytoplasm to the extracellular solution -Pushes the ions against their gradient	159
7436423110	Sodium Potassium Pump	1. Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to the sodium-potassium pump, high affinity for Na+ due to shape 2. Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation (addition of phosphate group) of a protein added by ATP 3. Phosphorylation causes protein to change shape, decreasing affinity for Na+ 4. High affinity for K+ due to new shape, which binds to extracellular side and triggers release of phosphate group 5. Loss of phosphate restores protein's original shape, which has a lower affinity for K+ 6. K+ is released and affinity for Na+ is high again, repeating the cycle	160
7436423111	Passive Transport vs. Active Transport		161
7436423112	Cotransport	-Single ATP powered pump that transports a specific solute that indirectly drives the active transport of several other solutes -Plants use gradient of H+ generated by proton pumps to drive active transport of amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients into the cell -Helps decrease instances of dehydration in humans	162
7436423113	Ligand	-Molecule that binds to a receptor site of another molecule	163
7436423114	Exocytosis	-Transport vesicles fuse with membrane and dump contents outside -Movement out of the cell	164
7436423115	Pinocytosis	-Cellular drinking -Cell gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles	165
7436423116	Phagocytosis	-Cellular eating -Cell engulfs particle by wrapping it with a thin membrane enclosed sack	166
7436423117	Endocytosis	-Cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances -Forms new vesicles from plasma membrane -Movement into the cell	167
7436423118	Receptor Mediated Endocytosis	-Ligands bind to receptor proteins	168
7436423119	Osmosis	-DIffusion of water through a membrane from high solute to low solute -More solute means less water molecules -Diffuse from where they are abundant to where they are scarce	169
7436423120	Hypertonic	-More solute outside the cells	170
7436423121	Hypotonic	-Less solute outside the cell	171
7436423122	Isotonic	-Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell	172
7436423123	Osmoregulation	-Balancing water uptake and loss -Controlling water flow into and out of the cell	173
7436423124	Water Potential	-Water moves from area of high water potential to areas with low water potential -Free energy of water -Explains movement of water from the roots to the top of a tree	174

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AP Civics Ch. 9 Flashcards

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7921621520	Air Wars	The fact that modern campaigns are often a battle of opposing televised advertising campaigns.	0
7921630205	Candidate- Centered Politics	Election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have the initiative and influence.	1
7921701797	Hard Money	Campaign contributions donated directly to candidates	2
7921725351	Hired Guns	A term that refers to the professional consultants who run campaigns for high office	3
7921737906	Money Chase	Describes the fact that the U.S. campaigns are very expensive and that candidates must spend a great deal of time raising funds in order to compete successfully	4
7921767077	Nomination	The action of nominating or state of being nominated.	5
7921779256	Packaging (of a candidate)	In modern campaigning, the process of recasting a candidate's record into an appealing image.	6
7921798087	Party-Centered Politics	Election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not candidates, have the initiative and influence.	7
7921816763	Party Organizations	The party organizational units at national, state, and local levels	8
7921829466	Primary Election	A form of election in which votes choose a party's nominee for public office; in most primaries, eligibility to vote is limited to voters who are registered members of the party.	9
7921861694	Service Relationship	The situation where party organizations assist candidates for office, but have no power to require them to accept or campaign on the party's main policy positions.	10
7921887962	Soft Money	Money raised, not subject to legal limits, that is given to a political party for general purposes rather than giving directly to a candidate.	11

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AP Literary Terminology Flashcards

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6431837406	External Conflict	External struggle between opposing forces in a story (man v. man, man v. nature, man v. society)	0
6431837407	Internal Conflict	Internal struggle involving opposing forces within a person's mind	1
6431837408	Conceit	Elaborate metaphor that compares two things that are startlingly different - often an extended metaphor	2
6431837409	Epithet	Adjective or adjective phrase applied to a person or thing that is frequently used to emphasize a character quality.	3
6431837410	Foil	A character who acts as a contrast to another character. Often a funny side kick to the dashing hero, or a villain contrasting the hero.	4
6431837411	Verbal Irony	A discrepancy between what is said and reality; saying one thing but really meaning something else.	5
6431837412	Dramatic Irony	Used often on stage. A character in the play or story thinks one thing is true, but the audience or reader knows better.	6
6431837413	Situational Irony	A direct contradiction between what is expected to happen, or what would be appropriate to happen, and what really does happen.	7
6431837414	Protagonist	The central character in the story who initiates or drives the action	8
6431837415	Tragic Hero	Protagonist with a tragic flaw	9
6431837416	Hamartia	The tragic flaw that leads to a character's downfall	10
6431837417	Pun	A "play on words" based on multiple meanings of a single word or on words that sound alike but mean different things.	11
6431837418	Soliloquy	A long speech made by a character in a play while no other characters are on stage.	12
6431837419	Theme	The insight about human life that is revealed in a literary work.	13
6431837420	Tragedy	In general, a story in which a heroic character either dies or comes to some other unhappy end.	14
6431837421	Ambiguity	Deliberately suggesting two or more different, and sometimes conflicting, meanings in a work.	15
6431837422	Antagonist	The opposing force in a story that struggles against or blocks the protagonist.	16
6431837423	Aphorism	Brief, cleverly worded statement that makes a wise observation about life or of a principle or accepted general truth. (Also known as a maxim or epigram)	17
6431837424	Didactic	Form of fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.	18
6431837425	Flashback	A scene that interrupts the normal chronological sequence of events in a story to depict something that happened at an earlier time.	19
6431837426	Apostrophe	Calling out to an imaginary, dead, or absent person, or to a place or thing, or a personified abstract idea.	20
6431837427	Couplet	Two consecutive rhyming lines of poetry	21
6431837428	Foreshadowing	The use of hints and clues to suggest what will happen later in a plot	22
6431837429	Inversion	The reversal of the normal word order in a sentence or a phrase	23
6431837430	Metonymy	A figure of speech in which a person, place, or thing is referred to by something closely associated with it (e.g. The crown = the monarch)	24
6431837431	Indirect characterization	The author develops a character through his speech, appearance, thoughts, actions, and others' reactions to him. Showing, rather than directly telling what a character is like.	25
6431837432	Direct characterization	The author tells us directly what a character is like: sneaky, generous, mean. Romantic literature relies more heavily on this form of characterization.	26
6431837433	Static character	A character who does not change much (emotionally) in the course of a story.	27
6431837434	Dynamic character	A character who changes (emotionally) in some important way as a result of the story's actions.	28
6431837435	Flat character	A character who has one or two personality traits. They are one dimensional and can be summed up in one phrase.	29
6431837436	Round character	A character who has more dimensions to his personality. They are complex, just like real people.	30
6431837437	Stream of consciousness	A style of writing that portrays the inner (often chaotic) workings of a character's mind.	31
6431837438	Allegory	Hidden meanings through symbolic figures, actions, imagery, and/or events, which together create the moral, spiritual, or political meaning the author wishes to convey	32
6431837439	Elegy	A poem of mourning, usually about someone who has died.	33
6431837440	Mood	An atmosphere (feeling) created by a writer's diction and the details selected.	34
6431837441	Suspense	A feeling of uncertainty and curiosity about what will happen next in a story	35
6431837442	Symbol	A person, place, thing or event that has meaning in itself and also stands for something more than itself.	36

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AP Government: Interest Groups Flashcards

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9800948519	K Street	A shorthand term for Washington lobbyists, derived from the name of the street in Washington, DC, where lobbying firms were once concentrated.	0
9800948520	Lobbyist	someone who tries to persuade legislators to vote for bills that the lobbyists favor	1
9800948521	Interest Group	an organization of people sharing a common interest or goal that seeks to influence the making of public policy	2
9800948522	Solidary Incentives	the social rewards (sense of pleasure, status, or companionship) that lead people to join political organizations	3
9800948523	Material Incentives	Benefits that have a monetary value, including money, gifts, services, or discounts received as a result of one's membership in an organization.	4
9800948524	Purposive Incentives	a reason for supporting or participating in the activities of a group that is based on agreement with the goals of the group	5
9800948525	Ideological Interest Group	political organization that attracts members by appealing to their political convictions or principles	6
9800948526	Public-Interest Lobby	a political organization whose goals will principally benefit nonmembers	7
9800948527	Communication Workers of America v. Beck (1988)	Declared that employees don't have to pay union dues for partisan political activities	8
9800948528	Social Movement	a widely shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or political order	9
9800948529	Environmental Movement	a social movement organized around concerns about the relationship between humans and the environment	10
9800948530	Feminist Movement	the movement aimed at equal rights for women	11
9800948531	Union Movement	in the 1800's working people became much more involved in politics. To create reforms workers joined together in voluntary associations called unions. Factory workers were faced with painfully long hours, and awful working conditions. They always had the threat of being laid off standing over them. They created a union to work to gather against the authorities.	12
9800948532	Foundations	charitable organizations that donate funds or assets for a specific purpose.	13
9800948533	Direct Mail	advertising sent directly to prospective customers via the mail	14
9800948534	Political Cue	a signal telling a legislator what values are at stake in a vote, and how that issue fits into his or her own political views on party agenda	15
9800948535	Insider Strategy	strategy of lobbyists that work closely with a few key members of Congress, meeting them privately to exchange information and favors.	16
9800948536	Grassroots Lobbying	efforts by groups and associations to influence elected officials indirectly, by arousing their constituents. (Going directly to the people, Ex. NRA)	17
9800948537	Astroturf Lobbying	when groups create front organizations designed to give the appearence of a greater level of public concern than really exists. ("Fake" Grassroots)	18
9800948538	Revolving Door	Employment cycle in which individuals who work for government agencies that regulate interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.	19
9800948539	Ethics in Government Act (1978)	Sets requirements for financial disclosure for elected public officials, and placed restrictions on former government officials lobbying activities (Watergate).	20
9800948540	Lobbyist Disclosure Act (1995)	Legislation aimed at bringing a level of accountability to federal lobbying practices in the US.	21
9800948541	Pluralist Theory	A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.	22
9800948542	Elitist Theory	a theory that a few top leaders make the key decisions without reference to popular desires	23
9800948543	Hyperpluralist Theory	A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened. Hyperpluralism is an extreme form of pluralism	24
9800948544	Trade Association	nonprofit organization that promotes the interests of a particular industry	25
9800948545	Iron Triangles	mutually dependent relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.	26
9800948546	Free Rider Problem	the problem faced by interest groups when citizens can reap the benefits of interest group action without actually joining, participating in, or contributing money to such groups. (Unions likewise)	27
9800948547	Think Tanks	public interest organizations that do research on policy questions and disseminate their findings in books, articles, conferences, op-ed essays for newspapers, and testimony before Congress.	28
9800948548	Earmarks	Pet projects added to appropriation bills by congressmen for their local issues, called "wasteful spending" and "pork barrel legislation" by critics.	29
9800948549	Influence Peddling	using personal friendships and inside information to get political advantage	30
9800948550	Collective good	Something of value that cannot be withheld from a potential group member.	31
9800948551	Olsen's law of large groups	the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimum amount of a collective good.	32
9800948552	selective benefits	goods that a group can restrict to those who actually join	33
9800948553	single issue groups	Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics.	34
9800948554	lobbying	contacting a public official to persuade the official to support the group's interests	35
9800948555	electioneering	direct group involvement in the electoral process	36
9800948556	Political action committee	a private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns	37
9800948557	amicus curiae brief	Legal briefs filed by organized groups to influence the decision in a supreme Court case.	38
9800948558	class action lawsuit	permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all those who have been affected	39
9800948559	union shop	A company in which new employees must join a union within a stated time period.	40
9800948560	right-to-work law	state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs	41

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AP Psych - Quiz #11 Flashcards

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7874512570	adaptation-level phenomena	our tendency to judge various stimuli in comparison with our past experiences (explains why we can be happy with something new at first but then we get used to it)	0
7874512571	approach-approach conflict	must select between two desirable outcomes	1
7874512572	approach-avoidance conflict	one goal has desirable and undesirable features	2
7874512573	avoidance-avoidance conflict	must select between two undesirable outcomes	3
7874512574	Cannon-Bard theory	theory that we experience emotion at the same time we have the physiological arousal	4
7874512575	facial feedback	facial expressions have an effect on the experience of emotions; smiling leads to feelings of happiness	5
7874512576	feel-good, do-good phenomena	people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood	6
7874512577	general adaptation syndrome	body's response to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion; described by Hans Selye	7
7874512578	James-Lange theory	theory that we experience emotion after the physiological arousal	8
7874512579	lateral hypothalamus	part of the hypothalamus that triggers hunger	9
7874512580	multiple approach-avoidance conflict	must select between two or more things but each has desirable and undesirable features	10
7874512581	relative deprivation	the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves	11
7874512582	two-factor theory or Schacter-Singer Theory	theory that we experience emotion after the physiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal	12
7874512583	Type A	competitive, hard-driving, impatient, perfectionistic people	13
7874512584	Type B	easy-going, relaxed people	14
7874512585	ventromedial hypothalamus	part of the hypothalamus that stops hunger	15

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AP Geography - Chapter 3 Flashcards

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7619049694	Asylum seeker	someone who has migrated to another country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee	0
7619051852	Topological space	the perception that one place is closer than another due to familiarity with the place	1
7619054822	Voluntary migration	permanent movement undertaken by choice	2
7619056577	Brain drain	a large scale emigration of talented people	3
7619058251	Unauthorized immigrants	people who enter a country without proper documentation to do so.	4
7619063228	Chain migration	migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there.	5
7619072942	Refugees	people who are forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, or membership in a social group or political opinion.	6
7619080649	Quotas	in reference to migration, laws that place maximum limits on the number of people who can immigrate to a country each year.	7
7619084112	Counterurbanization	net migration from urban to rural areas in more developed countries.	8
7619087464	Pull factor	a factor that induces, or attracts, people to move to a new location.	9
7619089552	Push factor	a factor that induces people to leave old residences.	10
7619093357	Emigration	migration from a location (exiting)	11
7619094954	Net migration	the difference between the level of immigration and the level of emigration.	12
7619097323	Floodplain	the area subject to flooding during a given number of years, according to historical trends.	13
7619100854	Mobility	all types of movement between locations	14
7619103218	Forced migration	permanent movement, usually compelled by cultural factors.	15
7619106077	Migration transition	a change in the migration pattern in a society that results from industrialization, population growth, and other social and economic changes that also produce the demographic transition.	16
7619110693	Guest worker	a term once used for a worker to migrated to the developed countries of Northern and Western Europe, usually from Southern and Eastern Europe or from North Africa, in search of a higher-paying job.	17
7619118636	Migration	a form of relocation diffusion involving a permanent move to a new location.	18
7619121040	Immigration	migration to a new location (moving in).	19
7619122962	Intraregional migration	permanent movement within one region of a country.	20
7619125455	Interregional migration	permanent movement from one region of a country to another.	21
7619127038	Internal migration	permanent movement within a particular country	22
7619129741	International migration	permanent movement from one country to another.	23
7619133444	Internally displaced person	someone who has been forced to migrate for similar political reasons as a refugee but has not migrated across an international border.	24
7619138770	Intervening obstacle	an environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration.	25
7619142602	Step migration	migration to a destination that does not happen all at once but in a series of steps.	26
7619145036	Friction of distance	The farther away a place is, the more difficult it is to get there.	27
7619149092	Distance decay	the diminishing in importance, and eventual disappearance of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin.	28
7619152252	Relocation diffusion	the spread of a feature or trend through bodily movement of people from one place to another.	29
7619155609	Intervening opportunity	the existence of a closer, less expensive, or more attractive option that arises during migration so as to interrupt the migration process.	30

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AP Word Wall Flashcards

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7405220853	un truc	thing (informal)	0
7405220854	les déchets	trash/garbage	1
7405220855	une filière	pathway/track of study	2
7405220856	le parcours	career history/experience	3
7405220857	un boulot	job/work (informal)	4
7405220858	le patrimoine	heritage	5
7405220859	une bourse	scholarship	6
7405220860	un sondage	survey/poll	7
7405220861	une récompense	reward	8
7405220862	rigoler	to laugh (informal)	9
7405220863	un acceuil	welcome/reception	10
7405220864	cocher	to check	11
7405220865	il s'agit de...	it's about...	12
7405220866	un stage	internship/training course	13
7405220867	améliorer	to improve	14
7405220868	agacer	to irratate/annoy	15
7405223108	d'ailleurs	by the way / for that matter	16
7405224368	avoir hâte de	to look forward to	17
7405225085	kiffer	to like (informal)	18
7405226406	nul / nul en	bad / hopeless at	19
7405227224	désormais	from now on	20
7405228015	incontournable	unavoidable / cannot be got around	21
7405229728	bébête / bête	silly / goofy	22
7405231129	(être) ravi de	(to be) delighted with / to	23
7405232601	rigolo	funny / amusing (informal)	24
7405234497	la remue-méninges	brainstorming	25
7405234498	un souci	worry	26
7405236101	un C.V. (curriculum vitae)	résumé	27
7405237058	le secours	help / aid	28
7405238924	un bénévolat	volunteer / charity work	29
7405239712	le schéma	outline / blueprint	30

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Flashcards

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AP World - Chp 6 Flashcards

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5846647200	Aborigine	The general name often used to describe the original inhabitants of Australia.	0
5846647201	Americas	People in this region developed complex urban societies and empires without the benefit of large pack animals or Iron technology.	1
7682883820	Chavin	The first major urban civilization in South America (900-250 B.C.E.). Its capital was located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Chavin became politically and economically dominant in a densely populated region. Famous for their style of architecture and drainage systems to protect from floods.	2
7682932746	Mayans	1500 B.C. to 900 A.D. This is the most advanced civilization of the time in the Western Hempishere. This is a major pre-Columbian civilization of the Yucatán Peninsula that reached its peak in the 9th century a.d. and produced magnificent ceremonial cities with pyramids, a sophisticated mathematical and calendar system, hieroglyphic writing, and fine sculpture, painting, and ceramics.	3
7682978141	Maya	Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire. Major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy, and development of the calendar.	4
7682995936	Mesoamerica	Means the "land between the Americas". It is a geographic region in the western hemisphere that was home of the Mayan and Aztec civilizations.	5
7683013506	Oceania	a large group of islands in the south Pacific including Melanesia and Micronesia and Polynesia (and sometimes Australasia and the Malay Archipelago)	6
7683025799	Olmec	The first Mesoamerican civilization. Between ca. 1200 and 400 B.C.E., these people of central Mexico created a vibrant civilization that included intensive agriculture, wide-ranging trade, ceremonial centers, and monumental construction. settled in modern day Mexico and who traded in jade and obsidian and erected colossal heads carved from rocks.	7
7683055325	Teotihuacan	A powerful city-state in central Mexico (100-75 C.E.), it was the first major metropolis in Mesoamerica and is located about 25 miles Northeast of present day Mexico City. Its population was about 150,000 at its peak, and collapsed around 800 CE. Exhibited city planning and unprecedented size for its time. It is most remembered for the gigantic "pyramid of the sun".	8

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BIG AP Flashcards

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9492035404	Ballad	Poem or story that is meant to be sang	0
9492035406	Cacophony	Harsh, discordant mixture of sounds	1
9492035408	Conceit	elaborate metaphor	2
9492035411	Euphony	The skill of speaking. Pleasant words	3
9492035412	Ambiguity	-The presence of two or more possible meanings in any passage, also a fallacy in which the same term is used in more than one way	4
9492035415	Denouement	-a literary device which can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction.	5
9492035417	Foil Character	-a character who contrasts with another character, usually the protagonist— to highlight particular qualities of the other character.	6
9492035418	Connotation	-refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly.	7
9492035419	Denotation	-as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings.	8
9492035428	Logos	means to convince an audience by use of logic or reason.	9
9492035429	Ethos	means to convince an audience of the author's credibility or character.	10
9492035430	Pathos	persuade an audience by appealing to their emotions.	11
9492035431	Rhetorical Question	, means to convince an audience by use of logic or reason.	12
9492035432	Epic	Poetic story. Long narrative poem often written about a hero or heroines.	13
9492035433	Antihero	Protagonist of a drama or narrative who is notably lacking in heroic qualities	14
9492035434	Archetype	Typical character, an action, or a situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. , also known as "universal symbol," may be a character, a theme, a symbol, or even a setting.	15
9492035435	Persona	The mask of an actor, and is therefore etymologically linked to the dramatis personae.	16
9492035436	Anachronism	an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place	17
9492035438	Antithesis	"opposite," is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.	18
9492035441	Epistrophe	same word returns at the end of each sentence. is a stylistic device that can be defined as the repetition of phrases or words at the ends of the clauses or sentences. Example: "Hourly joys be still upon YOU! Juno sings her blessings on YOU"	19
9492035447	Motif	a principal idea, feature, theme, or element; a repeated or dominant figure in a design	20
9492035450	Mood	How the reader feels about the text while reading.	21
9492035457	anaphora	repetition in first part of a sentence , to have an artistic meaning	22
9492035458	Enjambment	continuation of one line of a poem to the next without pause	23
9492035459	apostrophe	figure of speech used to address an imaginary character	24
9492035460	aside	when a character's dialogue is spoken but not heard by other actors on the stage	25
9492035461	assonance	repetition of vowel sounds	26
9492035463	ode	a lyric poem that celebrates something	27
9492035464	Shakespearean sonnet	a 14 line poem with a rhyme scheme of ababcdcdefefgg	28
9492035465	Spenserian sonnet	a 14 line poem with a rhyme scheme of ababbcbccdcdee	29
9492035466	Italian sonnet	a 14 line poem that includes an octave and a sestet	30
9492035469	couplet	two rhyming lines in a verse	31
9492035470	didactic writing	writing with a primary purpose to teach or preach	32
9492035475	metonymy	A figure of speech in which something is referred to by using the name of something that is associated with it ex: the crown is allowed to make the decision.	33
9492035480	satire	A literary work that criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies.	34
9492035482	synecdoche	a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa ex: His new wheels were enviable.	35
9492035485	asyndeton	a list in which conjunctions are purposely left out. ex: Read, write, learn	36
9492035486	polysyndeton	use of conjunctions frequently in a sentence. ex: here and there and everywhere	37
9492035487	chiasmus	two phrases that are parallel but inverted. ex: you can take the patriot out of the country, but you can't take the country out of the patriot	38