| 1214883036 | Where is the DNA in prokaryotic Cells | Cytoplasm rather than nuclear envelope | | 0 |
| 1214883037 | Components of Eukaryotic Cells | Nucleus, ER, Golgi, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, Mitochondira | | 1 |
| 1214883038 | Cell Theory | All organisms are made of cells
basic unit of organizational life
cells arise from | | 2 |
| 1214883039 | Cell Membranes | made of lipds and proteins.
lipid bilayer= barrier between | | 3 |
| 1214883040 | 5 ways of transport across cell membrane | 1. diffusion- molecules moving down the concentration gradient
2.osmosis- water across a membrane as a result of a concentration gradient
3. passive transport-fluids crossing membrane through proteins in the bilayer
4.active transport- protein gets E from ATP that allows it to move with or against concentration gradient
5.Endo/Exocytosis- cells create sacs/vessicles to transport or store substances in cytoplasm | | 4 |
| 1214883041 | Nucleus | acces to dna/ packages it for cell division.
composed of:
nuclear envelope (which has two lipid bilayers, allows exchanges between nucleus and cytoplasm)
nucleolus (where riobsomes are developed before being transported out of nucleus)
Eukarotic DNA (chromosomes) | | 5 |
| 1214883042 | ER | membrane has both smooth and rough portions.
SMOOTH ER- no ribosomes. transports the stored proteins for cells. communication between smooth and golgi. Most deeloped in seens/animals that secrete hormones.
ROUGH ER- large amounts of ribosomes. common in cells that produce secretions-pepsin/resin | | 6 |
| 1214883043 | Golgi Body | carry the product of the ER, where proteins are packaged for transport, Major highway for moving things out of the cell | | 7 |
| 1214883044 | cytoskeleton | made up of microtubles and mirofilaments (units of protein). Flagella and cilia | | 8 |
| 1214883045 | Flagella and Cillia | -made of microtubules
-9+2 organization | | 9 |
| 1214883046 | Lysosomes | main digestion organelles of the cell,have enzymes that break things down and clear waste out of cells | | 10 |
| 1215043396 | cell walls | support and protection for cells. carbohydrate framework.
extracellular matrix=collogen, fibrous proteins. Nutrients, hormones and other molecules diffuse through the cell matrix
cell junctions allow for multicellular organisms cells to interact with each toher. | | 11 |
| 1215043397 | carbon compounds | most common elements are C, O, H. compounds link into chains/rings for structural utility. Less than 20 carbon atoms are grouped into 4 families- simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides---> building blocks for lipds, proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, | | 12 |
| 1215043398 | Lipids | contain carbon and hydrogen. Mono/di/triglyceride refer to the amouns to fatty acid tails are present. Steroid=lipid with no fatty acid. Choloesterol= steroid. | | 13 |
| 1215043399 | Proteins | made up of amino acids. enzymes are proteins. three or more amino acids=polypeptide chain. denaturation changes the shape of a protein. Some denaturation =permanent, others not | | 14 |
| 1215043400 | Nucleotides | 5 carbon sugar, nitrogen base, phosphate group.
three kinds. Responsible for the transfer of protons and electrons from one reaction site to another.
1) ATP
2)Nucleotide Coenzymes transport H atoms and electrons necessary for metabolism
3)Nucleic acids. Single and double strands of nucleotide units. DNA. RNA.. | | 15 |
| 1215043401 | Acids bases and salts | acids release hydrogen atoms when they dissolve in water.
substances that release ions when dissolved in water are bases. carbonic acid is one of the bodies main buffers, which help to keep inernal PH constant. | | 16 |
| 1215043402 | atomic structure | atoms are composed of sub atomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons). Protons and neutrons are densely concentrated in the center of the atom. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number. Protons+ neutrons=mas number. | | 17 |
| 1215043403 | chemical bonds (3 kinds) | ionic bonds-when atom loses-gains electrons it becomes an ion. this bond is a relationship between two oppositely charged ions.
covalent bonds-when atoms share electrons. Polar and non polar.
Hydrogen- interaction of hydrogen molecules | | 18 |
| 1215043404 | mitochondria | eneergy stored as carbs is released to form ATP. needs O2 to make ATP. Outer and inner membrane. | | 19 |
| 1216423245 | Photosynthesis | Pair of chemical reactions. Plants produce ATP.
1. In light dependednt reactions sunlight E is absorbed and converted to chemical energy. Chemical E transferred to ATP and NAPDH
2. In light independednt reactions, sugar and other substances are assembled with ATP and NAPDH
Glucose is the end product. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, each one has a Thykaloid membrane where ATP production takes place. Products of photosyntheis (glucose) is made in the stoma. | | 20 |
| 1216423247 | ATP | -cells must convert energy of Carbs to ATP before uses
- provides energy fr all the metabolic pathways in cells, cells could not grow, develop, repair, or reproduce | | 21 |
| 1216423248 | ATP/ADP cycle | cells contain high E storage molecule (ATP), which can be splot into ADP. This reaction releases heat and energy. The phosphate groups on ATP are high energy bonds, release lots of Energy. | | 22 |
| 1216423250 | Electron Transport Systems | -production of atp depends on ets
-(aka) oxidation reduction reactions
-electron transport systems absorb the energy released from excited atoms and use it | | 23 |
| 1216423251 | aerobic energy releasing pathways | "with oxygen", requires for operation
stage 1: glucase degraded to pyruvate
stage 2:krebs cycle-- pyruvate degradated to CO2 and H20
stage 3: Electron transport phophorylation (E released goes throughout system and drives the production of glucose and ATP). The free O2 combines with hydrogen to form water. | | 24 |
| 1216423252 | anaerobic energy releasing pahways | (without oxygen). Something besides 02 is the final electron receptor. two main anaerobic pathways
1.Lactate Fermentation. Pyruvate from glycolysis is changed to lactate. Muscle cells use lactate fermentaton. After exercise 02 levels in blood increase and lactate is converted to CO2 and H20.
2. Alchohol Fermentation. pyruvate from glycolysis produces ethanol. | | 25 |
| 1216423253 | Enzymes | Enzymes are proteins. Highly selective- only interact with substrates that are a match for the active site. Lock and key. | | 26 |
| 1216423254 | Structure and Function of enzymes (2) | Induced Fit Model- active site on the surface of the enzyme makes conact with its substrate ( they almost fit, but not quite) the bonding causes changes in the active site and the substrate to make them fit better
Transition State- when the enzyme and substrate fit together perfectly the reaction happens much quicker | | 27 |
| 1216423255 | activation energy | the minimal amount of energy for a reaction to occur. Enzymes lower the activation energy | | 28 |
| 1216423256 | pH and temp effect on enzymes | ideal pH for enzymes=7
optimal temps between 20-60 C | | 29 |
| 1216423257 | Control of Enzymes-- Allosteric Enzymes, Feedback inhibition | enzymes allow the cells to control basic cellular functions.
inhibitors can bond with enzymes and decrease ability to function
Allosteric Enzymes- special sites where substances can bind and alter activity levels
Feedback inhibition-enzyme can reverse activity if its producing too much. The end product binds to the original substrate and inhibits production. | | 30 |
| 1216423258 | cofactors in enzyme function | non protein subtances that have two funtions
1. help enzymes catalyze reactions
2.becoming transfer agents for enzymes
Examples: NAD+ (carb breakdown) NADP+ (photosynthesis)
metal ions, cytochromes | | 31 |
| 1216423259 | cell division | Cytokinesis= division of cytoplasm
Mitosis/Meiosis= nuclear division
sexual reproduction begins with meiosis, continues with gamete production, ends with fertilization (sperm and egg nucleus combine into a zygote) | | 32 |
| 1216423260 | Mitosis | (PMAT)
Pro- chromosomes pair up. have replicated so that parent cell has two complete sets. cell forms two poles and nucleus dissapears
Meta-chromosomes align at the poles spindle fibers
Ana-sister chromosomes split and go to opposite poles. cell membrane begins to devide
Telo-chromosomes reach poles, nuclear membrane reforms, fiber dissapear | | 33 |
| 1216423261 | animal vs plant cytokinesis | animals-occurs in the later stages of mitotsis. Center of cell develops a cleave furrow, contractile filaments pull the membrane apart.
plants- have cell plate formation. have mre rigid walls, cant form cleavage furrow. Rather, vesicles form a cell plate instead. cellulose from new cell wall separate creating daughter cells. | | 34 |
| 1216423262 | Meiosis | splits two homologous chromosomes (same length, shape, genes) in half. Each gamete gets 1 pair homologous chromsomes.
when a germ cell is in interphase,its chromosomes are duplicated by DNA (creates sister chromatids)
during meiosis, these homolgous chromosomes swap segments | | 35 |
| 1216423263 | Dipolid | two homolgous chromosomes | | 36 |
| 1216609027 | Alleles | every gene has a specific location on a chromosome
Allele-an alternative form of a gene (one member of a pair) that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome
each allele comes from a parent and is responsible for dominant or recessive trait | | 37 |
| 1216609028 | Homozygote | an organism that has two identical alleles for a particular trait | | 38 |
| 1216609029 | mendels law of segregation | The process by which alleles are transmitted. dipoloid organisms inherit a pair of genes for each trait. | | 39 |
| 1216609030 | chromosome | a long stringly aggregate of gnes that carries DNA | | 40 |
| 1216609031 | Non duplicated chromosome | single stranded. hasnt yet done replication. comprised of a centromere region that connects two arm regions (the short arm is the p arm and the long arm is the q arm). | | 41 |
| 1216609032 | telomere | the end region of a chromosome... extra stuff that fills in when something is missing. Repeating non-coding DNA | | 42 |
| 1216609033 | amino acids | 20 different kinds of amino acids
each one is made up of three nucleotide bases (codon) found in DNA | | 43 |
| 1219814061 | codon | three bases (ATGC). Codons are a special code to make an amino acid. There are 64 possible codons. | | 44 |
| 1219814062 | Dihybrid cross | breeding betweeen organisms that dieer in two traits. To heterozygous that cross gives you heterozgous | | 45 |
| 1219814063 | gametes | hapoloid reproductive celss that untie during sexual reproduction to form a diploid zygote. | | 46 |
| 1219814064 | homogametic | gametes that contain one type of chromosome
Ex:ovum | | 47 |
| 1219814065 | heterogametic: | gametes that conatin two types of chromosomes
Ex: sperm | | 48 |
| 1219814066 | Aneuploidy | abnormoal number of chromosomes-- extra or not enough | | 49 |
| 1219814067 | Trisomic and monosomic | trisomic- if zygote has an additional chromosome (3)
monosomic-if a zygote is missing a chromosome | | 50 |
| 1219814068 | Errors that occur during nondisjunction | 1. homologous chromsomes dont separte during anaphase 1 of meiosos
2. sister chromatids dont separte during anaphase two of meiosos 2 | | 51 |
| 1219814069 | klinefelter Syndrome | males have extra X chromosome. XXY.
caused by non disjunction. | | 52 |
| 1219814070 | turner syndrome | females only. Genotype for only one X. (X0). | | 53 |
| 1219814071 | Down Syndrome | nondysjunction in autosomal cell, affecting chromosome 21. | | 54 |
| 1219814072 | daughter chromosome | a chromosome that results from the separation of a sister chromtid during cell division. In anaphase sister chromosomes separate to form daughter chromatids. | | 55 |
| 1219814073 | how time is spent in interphase | 90% | | 56 |
| 1219814074 | Cytokinesis occurs when? | telophase | | 57 |
| 1220011422 | 5 steps of protein synthesis | 1.Ribosomes send message to nucleus to unzip the part of the DNA needed
2. A Nucleic called mRNA (made up of amino acids and nitrogen) bonds to one of the unzipped strands (the sense strand). TRANSCRIPTION.
RNA vs DNA-
RNA- uses a ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose sugar as backbone, also doesnt use the base theymine, instead uses uracil
DNA- bonds in DNA are double hydrogen bonds, single bonds in RNA
3.copied mRNA strand returns to the ribisome to make protein
4. tRNA collects free amino acids and carries them to the ribosome
5.amino acids make proteins according to the mRNA instructions (THIS IS CALLED TRANSLATION) | | 58 |
| 1220011423 | Phenotype and Genotype | Phenotype- what is observed. outward appearance
Genotype- genetic makeup. ex- homozygous dom (TT) Heterozygous (Tt) Homozygous recesive (tt) | | 59 |
| 1220011424 | gene | a stretch of DNA that codes for a trait. A gene codes for a protein which brings about a trait. | | 60 |
| 1220011425 | locus | location of the gene on the chomosome | | 61 |
| 1220011426 | Allele | a varient of a gene. one gene may have multiple alleles. all alleles for the same gene exist at the same locus
when a gene has more than two alleles its called multiple alleles. EX; blood type has 3 alleles, IaIb and i. Because a cell can only hold two of these alleles there are many different blood types. | | 62 |
| 1220011427 | how many alleles of a gene does a cell hold? | 2 alleles of each gene- one from mom and one from dad. | | 63 |
| 1220011428 | Blood Type IaIa or Ia i | Blood type A | | 64 |
| 1220011429 | IbIb or Ib i | B | | 65 |
| 1220011430 | IaIb | AB | | 66 |
| 1220011431 | ii | O | | 67 |
| 1220011432 | homozygous | when two alleles that an indivisual carries are the same
AA or aa | | 68 |
| 1220011433 | heterozygous | when the two alleles an individual carries are different
Aa | | 69 |
| 1220011434 | Wild type | the normal allele for an organisms, usually the most prevalent. | | 70 |
| 1220011435 | recessive | the "weak" allele. this allele is expressed if both copies are writte as lower case. | | 71 |
| 1220011436 | Complete Dominance | AA-- Dominant
Aa-- Dominant
aa--recessive | | 72 |
| 1220011437 | Co-Dominance | Genotype phenotype
AA A
AB Both A and B
BB B | | 73 |
| 1222148182 | incomplete dominance ex. | the color of chickens. a cross between black and white gives grey. | | 74 |
| 1222148183 | leakage | gene flow from one species to another | | 75 |
| 1222148184 | penetrance | frequency that the genotype will result in phenotype. When something is dominant it usually has strong penetrance | | 76 |
| 1222148185 | expressivity | to what degree a penetrant gene is expressed. | | 77 |
| 1222148186 | why meiosis is important for genetic variability | genetic recombination is the product of independent assortment and crossing over. | | 78 |
| 1222148187 | compare and contrast the different steps of mitosis and meiosis | Mitosis V Meiosis
no tetrads vs. tetrad formation (pairing homologous
chroms/crossing over
daughter cells identical to parents V daughter cells differ
diploid (2n) daughter cells V haploid (1n) daughter cells
1 division V 2 divisions
2 daughter cells V 4 sperm cells or 1 egg | | 79 |
| 1222148188 | segregation of genes ( what is independent asortment) | a cell has two copies of each chromosome (homologous C) one from mom and dad. In independednt assortment, these chromosomes are shuffled and one cops is placed into the gamete. | | 80 |
| 1222148189 | The mechanisms of independent assortment | during metaphase 1 of meiosis, homologous chroms pair up along line in random orientation. During anaphase, the chroms are pulled apart. the ones on the left and right each go to different daughter cells | | 81 |
| 1222148190 | segregation of genes (linkage) | - genes on different chromosomes are randomized, those on the same chromosome arent
-genes on the same chromosome are somewhat linked
-crossing over reduces linkage, but only really works if the genes are farther away from each other
-closer genes are, more they are linked. | | 82 |
| 1222567659 | genetic recombination | independent assortment
crossing over- occurs during prophase at chiasma. The chiasma is made possible because of tetrads which are formed through synapsis | | 83 |
| 1222567661 | single cross overs | genetic recombination. chromatids involved exchange alleles at a given locus. results in 2/4 recombinants. | | 84 |
| 1222567664 | double cross overs (3 scenarios) | three scenarios-
1.TWO STRAND DOUBLE CROSS no genetic recombination. exchange alleles and then exchange them back (called two strand double crossover, 0/4 recombinants)
2. THREE STRAND DOUBLE CROSS chromatids exchange alleles during crossover, then a crossover chromatid exchanges with anothers. Results in 2/4 recombinants
3. 4 stranded double crossover. 4/4 recombinants | | 85 |
| 1227179312 | sex linked characteristics and cytoplasmic in heritance | genes for characteristics are on the X chromosome. Sex linked alleles are on X.The Y chromosome is small, carries few genes
cytoplasmic inheritance- inhertiance of things other than genomic DNA. all cellular oranelles like mitochodria and inherited from mother. | | 86 |
| 1227179313 | mutation (general concept) | error in DNA sequence. | | 87 |
| 1227179314 | random mutation | random changes in dna sequence | | 88 |
| 1227179315 | translation error | can cause expression of mutant phenotype | | 89 |
| 1227179316 | transcription error | can cause expression of mutant phenotype | | 90 |
| 1227179317 | base substitution | mutation involving base ATGC changing to a different base | | 91 |
| 1227179318 | inversion | when a stretch of DNA (a segment of chromosome) breaks off and reattatched in the opposite direction | | 92 |
| 1227179319 | addition/insertion | an extra base is added into the DNA sequence | | 93 |
| 1227179320 | deletion | a base is taken out of the dna sequence | | 94 |
| 1227179321 | translocation | a segment of a chromosome braks off and thenreattached someplace else | | 95 |
| 1227179322 | mispairing | a not pairing with t and g not pairing with c | | 96 |
| 1227179323 | mutagen | somehing that causes a mutation | | 97 |
| 1227179324 | carcinogen | something that causes a mutaiton that causes cancer. Mitogens (increase mitosis and cause tumors) | | 98 |
| 1227179325 | hardy weinburg | used for bacteria/small random organisms.
p+q=1
(p+q)^2=1--> p2 +2pq+q2=1
1. infinetely large population ( no genetic drift)
2. no mutation
3 no migration
4 random mating
5 no natural selection | | 99 |
| 1227179326 | back cross | mating between the offspring and the parent =preserve parental genotype | | 100 |
| 1227179327 | generations p,f1,f2 | p=parent, f1=child f2=grandchildren | | 101 |
| 1227179328 | fitness | reproductive succes. NEED TO REPRODUCE TO BE FIT | | 102 |
| 1227179329 | directional selection | selects for a trait on one extreme. Shift to the right or left in graph
EX- faster fliers, faster divers | | 103 |
| 1227179330 | stabilizing selection | selects for a trait that is moderate.
EX not too low or too high birth weight
graph gets narrower in middle and taller | | 104 |
| 1227179331 | disruptive selection | slects for extreme (camel hump graph)
ONLY THREE TYPES OF SELCTION | | 105 |
| 1227179332 | altruism | sacraficing the fitness of the individual to benefit the group. | | 106 |
| 1227179333 | speciation | definition of species:
be able to interbreed, produce fertile young, this happens naturally
speciation is the formation of a new species | | 107 |
| 1227179334 | ploymorphism | forms of alleles/traits | | 108 |
| 1227179335 | adaptation | genetic change in a population caused by natural selection. Caused by darwins natural selection | | 109 |
| 1227179336 | specialization | adaption of a species to fill a niche | | 110 |
| 1227179337 | ecological niche | the resources the species needs to survice | | 111 |
| 1227179338 | population growth and competition | population growth is checked by competition
scarce resources causes competition increase, slowing down population growth
competiton within a speciates causes speciation | | 112 |
| 1227179339 | inbreeding | increases the frequency of homozygotes (aa)
increases the chance of homozygous recessive traits | | 113 |
| 1227812173 | outbreeding | mating with non relatives, increases heterzygosity | | 114 |
| 1227812174 | bottle neck | sever reduction in population size, often caused by a genentic drift | | 115 |
| 1227812175 | geentic drift | random changes in allele frequencies
increases as populaion size decreases | | 116 |
| 1227812176 | divergent evolution | same lineage.evolving apart to be more different
ex- bats and horses, limb of the bat became wings and the horse developed hooves. Produces hmologous structures.
gill-lungs
fin-wings-arms
tail-leg
fur-epidermis-fat | | 117 |
| 1227812177 | parallel evolution | same lineage. evoloving closer together to be similar
ex-feeding appendeages on crustaceans | | 118 |
| 1227812178 | convergent evolution | different lineage. evoloving closer together to be similar using different mechanisms.
ex- bats and butterflies | | 119 |
| 1227812179 | coevolution | two species evolove in repsonse to the other, predator/prey,host/parasite species | | 120 |
| 1227812180 | symbiotic relationships | parasitism-one bnefits (parasite), host is harmed
cmmensalism-one benefits, one is not harmed
mutualism-both species benfit | | 121 |
| 1227812181 | ontogeny | development through the life of an organism | | 122 |
| 1227812182 | phylogeny | development through evolutionary times of a lineage/species | | 123 |
| 1227812183 | Molecular clock/evolutionary time | random genetic mutations that are not acted on by natural selection occur at a constatnt rate.
by measuring nuetral mutations you can figure out hosw much time has passed, and when two species diverged | | 124 |
| 1233916340 | origins of life (5) | 1. organic molecules created by atmospheric gases fall to ocean primodial soup
2. RNA- simple organiz molecules formed RNA polymers that can self replicate
3. protocells. aggregates of RNA proteins inside lipid envelope
4. Prokaryotes first anaerobic herterotrphs
5. Eukaryotes evolved by endosymbiosis, big cells engulfing smaller cells than developing a mutualistic relationship | | 125 |
| 1233916341 | chordate | one of the phylums of the animal kingdom
-notochord, bones replace notochord
-pharyngeal pouches (gill slits in embryo)
-dorsal nerve cord forms nervous system | | 126 |
| 1233916342 | vertebrate | a group of chordates
jawless agnatha (jawless fish)
cartilaginous (sharks rays skates)
Bony (osteichthyes)
amphibians
reptiles
mammals (heterodontic)
Birds | | 127 |
| 1236487561 | commensalism | an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm. | | 128 |
| 1236487562 | Allens Rule | appendages of animals in cold environments (stalky and short) vs warm environments (tall, skinny) | | 129 |
| 1236487563 | causes of competitive exclusion | states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist if other ecological factors are constant. When one species has even the slightest advantage or edge over another then the one with the advantage will dominate in the long term | | 130 |
| 1236487564 | autosomes | Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome | | 131 |
| 1236487565 | linkage | tendency for genes on the same chromosome ending up o the same gamete | | 132 |
| 1236487566 | crossing over | Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis. | | 133 |
| 1236487567 | molecules | made up of atoms | | 134 |
| 1236487568 | DNA structure and function | composed of 4 nucleotides - 5 carbon sugar,phosphate group,1 of for bases (ATGC), and cytosine
two strands of nucleotides twisted into double helix | | 135 |
| 1236487569 | DNA replication | double helix unwinds
DNA polymerase
stored pairs of nucleotides pair with those unwinded | | 136 |
| 1236487570 | protein synthesis (transcription) | (genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA | | 137 |
| 1236487571 | protein synthesis (translation) | (genetics) the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm | | 138 |
| 1236487572 | translation | (genetics) the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm
aka RNA molecules transported from the nucleus to the protoplasm are used a the templates for making polypeptide chains | | 139 |
| 1236487573 | how transcription differs from DNA replication | 2 ways-
only one sgment of the DNA stran is used (rather than whole strand)
Different enzymes, RNA polymerase is active... promoters initiate transcription. The promoter binds with RNA polymerase and moves along the DNA template and joins two nucleotides into an RNA transcript. | | 140 |
| 1236487574 | Translation of Genetic Code (initation) | 1. initation- and inhibitor starts translation by binding to a small ribosomal unit, which inturn binds to the transcript. Then a large ribosomal unit bonds with a small unit creating a complete ribosome and initiator. | | 141 |
| 1236487575 | Translation of Genetic Code (Chain elongation) | 2. Chain elongation- a start codon a (base triplet on RNA) defines the frame for assembling amino acids in correct order. RNA then delvers amino acids to the ribosome which forms a polypeptide chain | | 142 |
| 1236487576 | Translation of Genetic Code (chain termination) | 3.chain termination-a stop codon is reached and the robocome and polypeptide chain are detatched from the RNA transcript. The chain joins the free proteins in the cytoplasm | | 143 |
| 1236487577 | X linked recessive inheritance | 1. mutated gene falls on X
2. males are typically efected if only possess on alelle and its recessive. Heterozygous females are normial
3. normal male + heterozygous female= 50% chance children will be carriers | | 144 |
| 1236487578 | down syndrom | trisomy 21 (extra chromosome on 21) three copies | | 145 |
| 1236487579 | turner syndrom | caused by non disjunction. have 45 chromosomes rather than 46. hace short lifespan. sterile. age prematurely. | | 146 |
| 1236487580 | XYY | affects males. taller, mild retardation. normal children | | 147 |
| 1236519538 | genes losing control | ... | | 148 |
| 1236519539 | controlling gene activity | controlled by many interacting elements regulatory proteins, enzymes, DNA molecules, control sites in substances. each cell has a specialized process for gene activity control. | | 149 |
| 1236519540 | Cancer | sometimes gene control that regulates cell division is damaged. failure of cell control can cause a tumor
cancer
1changes plasma membrance and cytoplasm in cells, enzymes disfunction.
2. cells multiply increase to high densities tissues dont realize theres overcrowding
3. cells cant adhere to parents tissue
4.cells become lethal | | 150 |
| 1247031772 | Anterior Pituitary Gland | follicole stimulating hormones - acts on mature ovary, releases hormones.
TSH= T3/T4 hornome, thyroxin
increased TSH= hypothyroid
decreased TSH= hyperthyroid
negative feedback loop
flat pig
FSH
LH
ACTH
TH
P XXX Nothing
I
GH | | 151 |
| 1247031773 | Posterior Pituitary Gland | Post = outhouse= potty hormone, antidieretic
negative feedback loop of anterior and post. | | 152 |
| 1247031774 | Pineal Gland | Luetinizing hormone
1. estrogen.... ovaries and abdominal fat
2. progesterone | | 153 |
| 1247031775 | how muscles contract | muscle-muscle fibers-myofibrils-sarcomeres (contractile units) with alternating rows of thick and thing filaments. Then filiments are attatched to the Z line.
when the thick and thin filaments of the saramere slide past each toher, the Z lines are pulled closer together. When Saromeres contract, myofibrils do also. | | 154 |
| 1247061967 | Sensory/ afferent neurons | recieve impulses from sense organs and transmit to CNS | | 155 |
| 1247061968 | associative/interneurons | in CNS, transmist signals to motor neurons | | 156 |
| 1247061969 | motor/efferent neurons | signals away from brain spinal c to muscles/glands | | 157 |
| 1247061970 | resting potential | not carrying an impulse | | 158 |
| 1247061971 | Forebrain | 1 cerebrum
2 olfactory lobes
3 thalmus
4 hypothalmus | | 159 |
| 1247061972 | Midbrain | visual and sensory
links with cerebellum that controls balance and equillibrium | | 160 |
| 1247061973 | hindbrain | medulla- atuonomic and invluntary activity
cerebellum
ponds | | 161 |
| 1247061974 | somatic nervous system | cranial and spinal ners, sensory and motor neurons | | 162 |
| 1247061975 | autonomic nervous system | internal organs, glnds and heart muscle
1 sympathetic
2.parasympathetic | | 163 |
| 1247061976 | Endorcrine systme consists of?
and is regulated by what? | Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,adrenal,thmus,pineal,gonads
regualtes by hypothalmus | | 164 |
| 1247061977 | Hormones Hypothalmus | CRH TRH GRH GIH GnRH PRH PIH | | 165 |
| 1247061978 | hormones of anterior pituitary | AC TH, GH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin | | 166 |
| 1247061979 | hormones of posterior pituitary | vasopresin (ADH), oxytocin | | 167 |
| 1247061980 | Pancreas | beta cells secrete insuling
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
work together to regulate carbs proteins and metabolism | | 168 |
| 1247061981 | Respiratory System | Pharynx, larynx, trachea- left and right bronchi-bronchioles-alveoli | | 169 |
| 1247061982 | Circulatory system | right atrium-tricuspid valve-right ventricle- pumonary artery LUNGS CO2- pulmonary vein-left atrium-bicuspid valve-left ventricle
systole-contraction
diastole-relaxation | | 170 |
| 1247061983 | Lymphatic system | brings nutrients/ 02 to cells and removes waste | | 171 |
| 1247061984 | small intestine | most degestion takes place here | | 172 |
| 1247061985 | liver | synthesizes bile, stored in gall bladder, bile emulsifies fat | | 173 |
| 1247061986 | pancreas | synthesizes hormones and enzymes | | 174 |
| 1247061987 | outcome of digestion | nutrient molocules reducs to solube forms
carbs--> glucose/fructose
Proteins-->amino acids
fats--> fatty acids/glycerol | | 175 |
| 1247061988 | Excretory system (kidney) | glomerous
bowmans capsule
promximal tubule
distal tuble
loop of henle
collecting duct | | 176 |
| 1247061989 | nephron | remove waste products from blood | | 177 |
| 1247061990 | renal artery- | ...pumps blood into kidney | | 178 |
| 1247061991 | process of kidney | fluid entering nephron similar to blood- as fluid moves to the prox tubule much is reabsorped into blood. Glucose and sodium are reabsorbed through avtice transport | | 179 |
| 1247061992 | Kidney releases these hormones | vasopresin
aldosterone | | 180 |
| 1247061993 | Conjunctiva | covers eye | | 181 |
| 1247061994 | Front and back chambers of eye | front chamber contains aqueous humor, back chamber contains vitreous humor | | 182 |
| 1247061995 | Light and the eye | light enters- reaches retina- optic nerve- pupil- carries to visual part of brain | | 183 |
| 1247061996 | Ear outer, inner , middle name of canal | eustachian tube
soundwaves cause ear drun to vibrate | | 184 |
| 1247061997 | male reporductive system
testes
seminierous tubles
epididymus | testes-sperm and testosterone
semi- sperm made inside
epidid- storage for sperm | | 185 |
| 1247061998 | cleavage of zygot and cell formation | egg goes from follicole to fallopian tube
2,4,8,16,32 cells | | 186 |
| 1247061999 | primary immune response | B cells carry antigen receptor proteins
when B cells meet matching antigen, antigen attatches to B cell and underfoes miosis and produces 1. plasma celss and 2. memory cells. The plasma cells then produce and antigen. Macrophages and nucleophiles ingest the anitbody | | 187 |
| 1247062000 | antigen and pathogen | antigen- foreigh substance that causes the ummune sytem to react (usually protein, glycoprotein, or carbs)
pathogens- disease producing organisms | | 188 |
| 1247062001 | secondary immune response | memory cells store the information to build the same kind of plasma cells built during the primary immune response. Second time antigen attacks memory cells produce antibodies | | 189 |
| 1247068440 | T Cells | a cells that is inected witha virus has antigens on its surface. The t cell recognizes the antigens and kills the cells upon contact. | | 190 |
| 1247068441 | AIDs | attacks the CD4 lympocites which function as helper cells
helper cells can no longer stimmlate the production of B cell lymphocytes which give rise to the anti body producing plasma and memory cells | | 191 |
| 1247068442 | metastasis | how cancer cpreads | | 192 |
| 1247068443 | pyrimidines | Thymine Cytosine and Uracil | | 193 |
| 1247068444 | Purines | Adenine
Guanine | | 194 |
| 1247162123 | Neurons | ... | | 195 |
| 1247162124 | Aligodendrite | nodes at the end of each dendrite
two functions
1 recognize demylinated areas
2emit liquid myelin | | 196 |
| 1247162125 | nodes of ranvier | electrical messages travel along them, jump from node to node. | | 197 |
| 1247162126 | chemical messages on neuron | require polarization of neurotransmitters
putting in K and taking N out | | 198 |
| 1247162127 | occipital lobe | heart rate respiration rate dialiation/ constriction of vessels renal function | | 199 |
| 1247162128 | pareuresis | cant relax center of occiptal lobe
60 billion in prisons | | 200 |
| 1247162129 | spinal cord | cervical 7
throacic 12
lumbar 5
saccral 1
coygeal 1-2 | | 201 |
| 1247162130 | saratonin | ordering, sequencing, inititaion of tasks,
ADHD cant process executive functions because melatonin has stayed around too long. Anxiety- cells dont re uptake seratonin | | 202 |
| 1247162131 | adrenal cortex | (Endocrine gland) monitors blood sugar level, aids in lipid and protein metabolism | | 203 |
| 1247162132 | adrenal medulla | (Endocrine gland) controls cardiac function raises blood sugar and controls the size of the vessels | | 204 |
| 1247162133 | Thyroid gland | (Endocrine gland) helps regulate the metabolism and functions of growth and development | | 205 |
| 1247162134 | parathyroid | regulates calcium in blood | | 206 |
| 1247162135 | Thymus gland | plays role in immune response | | 207 |
| 1247162136 | pineal gland | the gland that plays a major role in sexual development, sleep, and metabolism | | 208 |
| 1247162137 | pituitary cland | important role in growth and development | | 209 |
| 1247162138 | 5 kingdoms of life | Monera- single cells
protista-single cells with greater internal complexity
fungi-
plants
animals | | 210 |
| 1247162139 | monera | bacteria, most numerous
no nucleus organelles have semi rigid cells walls and flagella for motility
photosynthetic autotrophs
reproduce by fission | | 211 |
| 1247162140 | groups of monera (4) | Archeabacteria- inhospitable environments
photosynthetic batera- produce ATP. green algae
Chemosynthetic baceria-nitrifying bacteria
heterotrophic eubacteria- deadly diseases. Syphillis and limes. | | 212 |
| 1247162141 | Protists | single celled eukarytic organisms
Slime molds
Euglenids
Chrysophates
Dinoflagellates
Flagellated PRotozoans
Amoeboid Protozoans
Sorozoans | | 213 |
| 1247162142 | Fungi and major groups | heterotrophs
extra cellular digestion/absorption
multicellular
absorb nutrients through mycelium, mesh of filaments called hyphae
Sac funfi-sac shaped spores
imperfect fungi- asexual, penicillin
symbionts-lichen
club- mushroom
chrytids- swamps
zygospore-reproduces SEXUALLY, bread mold | | 214 |
| 1247162143 | bryophytes | non vasular land plants. simple transport systems not true roots, stems, or leaves. require a mist environment.
above ground parts have protective cuticle
reproductive cells are protected by insulating tissues to keep moist
the embryo sporophyte begins its development inside the female gametophyte.
liverworts, hornwarts, mosses. | | 215 |
| 1247162144 | Sponges | no organs, body symmetry
collar cells capture food on microvillus and nouris sponge
some reproduce sexually, other asexually (fragmentation) | | 216 |
| 1247162145 | Cnidarians | coral, jellyfish, seam anemones.
radial design
body cavity= gut with attatched mouth
nerve net= primitive nervous system
produce nematocytes sacs that emit toxins
sexual and asexual reproduction. | | 217 |
| 1247162146 | platyhelminthes | flatworms, fluke, tapeworms
bilateral
organ systems
sac like gut, food enters through pharynx | | 218 |
| 1247162147 | Mollusks | snails, oysteres, clams
reproductive organs heart excretory systems gills
gastropods-snails
Bivalves-clams
Cephalopods-squid | | 219 |
| 1247162148 | Annelids | earthworms, leeches, ploychaetes | | 220 |
| 1255731824 | nucleosome | DNA wrapped around a histone | | 221 |
| 1259428711 | muscle contraction | 1. action potential releases calcium (depolarization), goes through T tubles throughout cell
2.calcium release channel is opened., releases calcium ions all throughout cell
3.thick action and thin myosin filaments are juxtaposed, but cannot intereact without calcium
bc myosin binding sites are covered by tropomyosin
4. troponin binds to calcium moving tropomyosin off myosin binding sites
5. myosin motors can crawl along actin and contract
6. Calcium returned to sarcoplasmic reticulum via calcium pump.
7. with no calcium there myosin releases actin and the filaments slide back to their original positions. | | 222 |
