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Campbell Biology: Ninth Edition - Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules Flashcards

Vocabulary: macromolecule, polymer, monomer, condensation reaction (dehydration reaction), enzyme, hydrolysis, carbohydrate, monosaccharide, glycosidic linkage, polysaccharide, starch, glycogen, chitin, cellulose, lipid, fatty acid, fats/oils, saturated fatty acid, unsaturated fatty acid, ester bond, phospholipid, steroid, cholesterol, catalyst, polypeptide, protein, amino acid, peptide bond, hydrophobic interaction, disulfide bridge, denaturation, chaperonins, nucleic acids, nucleotides, phosphodiester bond, deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, ATP, double helix, antiparallel, nitrogenous base
Objectives:
After attending lectures and studying the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Distinguish between inorganic and organic substances and give examples of each.
2. For each of the functional groups listed below, show the structural formula of the groups, give an example of a biologic organic molecule on which is can be found.
hydroxyl group
carbonyl group
carboxyl group
amino group
sulfhydryl group
phosphate group
3. List the 4 categories of organic macromolecules that make up all living things and the
main functions of each
4. Explain how organic macromolecules are polymers made up of monomer subunits.
5. Recognize the condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis) process of making
organic macromolecules from monomers
6. Know the following bonds made as a result of dehydration synthesis and the
macromolecules that result:
2 amino acids -----peptide bond (proteins)
2 sugar molecules -----glycosidic bond (carbohydrates)
2 nucleotides ---------- phosphodiester bond (nucleic acid)
glycerol and fatty acid ------ ester bond
7. Describe the hydrolysis process of breaking down organic macromolecules to monomer subunits.
8. Relating to carbohydrates:
a.

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1674834907	macromolecule	There are Four major types of biological macromolecules that make up the human body: nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats	0
1674834908	dehydration reaction	a chemical reaction in which 2 molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule	1
1674834909	hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between 2 molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers	2
1674834910	carbohydrates	a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharide) or polymers (polysaccharide)	3
1674834911	monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, that are generally some multiple of CH2O	4
1674834912	polysaccharide	Polymers of simple sugars covalently linked by glycosidic bonds	5
1674834913	fat	a lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or a triglyceride.	6
1674834914	fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain; vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a triacyglycerol or a triglyceride	7
1674834915	phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head.; form bilayers that function as biological membranes	8
1674834916	protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure	9
1674834917	amino acid	An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group; serve as monomers of polypeptides	10
1674834918	peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by dehydration reaction	11
1674834919	primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids	12
1674834920	nucleic acid	a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. the 2 types of nucleic acid are DNA and RNA	13
1674834921	deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule, consisting of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins	14
1674834922	ribonucleic acid (RNA)	a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses	15
1674834923	Saturated fat	All carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds	16
1674834924	Unsaturated fat	A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail.	17
1674834925	Ester bond	...	18
1674834926	What determines Tertiary Structure?	Interactions between R Groups rather than interactions between backbone constituents	19
1674834927	Carboxyl Group		20
1674834928	Amino Group		21
1674834929	Phosphate Group	...	22
1674834930	dissaccharide	A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.	23
1674834931	Which monosaccharide is a major nutrient, central to cellular metobolism. It is broken down for energy in the process of cellular respiration. The carbon skeleton of this sugar can also be used to build many other organic molecules, including amino acids and fatty acids.	Glucose	24

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AP US History: The American Pageant Chapter 8 Flashcards

C, D, F

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1855569822	Continental Congress	The body that chose George Washington commander of the Continental Army	0
1855569823	Canada	The British colony that Americans invaded in hopes of adding it to the rebellious thirteen	1
1855569824	Common Sense	The inflammatory pamphlet that demanded independence and heaped scorn on "the Royal Brute of Great Britain"	2
1855569825	Declaration of Independence	The document that provided a lengthy explanation and justification of Richard Henry Lee's resolution that was passed by Congress on July 2, 1776	3
1855569826	Whigs (1)	The term by which the Americans Patriots were commonly known, to distinguish them from the American "Tories"	4
1855569827	Loyalists	Another name for the American Tories	5
1855569828	Anglican	The church body most closely linked with Tory sentiment, except in Virginia	6
1855569829	Hudson Valley	The river valley that was the focus of Britain's early military strategy and the scene of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga in 1777	7
1855569830	armed neutrality	Term for the alliance of Catherine the Great of Russia and other European powers who did not declare war but assumed a hostile neutrality toward Britain.	8
1855569831	South	The region that saw some of the Revolution's most bitter fighting, fro 1780 to 1782, between American General Greene and British General Cornwallis	9
1855569832	privateers	"Legalized pirates," more than a thousand strong, who inflicted heavy damage on British shipping	10
1855569833	Whigs (2)	British political party that replaced Lord North's Tories in 1782 and made a generous treaty with the United States	11
1855569834	Mississippi River	The western boundary of the United States established in the Treaty of Paris	12
1855569835	militia	The irregular American troops who played a crucial role in swaying the neutral civilian population toward the Patriot cause	13
1855569836	Holland	The other European nation besides France and Spain that supported the American Revolution by declaring war on Britain	14
1855569837	George Washington	A wealthy Virginian of great character and leadership abilities who served his country without pay	15
1855569838	Bunker Hill	Military engagement that led King George III officially to declare the colonist in revolt	16
1855569839	Benedict Arnold	Brilliant American general who invaded Canada, foiled Burgoyne's invasion, and then betrayed his country in 1780	17
1855569840	Thomas Paine	A radical British immigrant who put an end to American toasts to King George.	18
1855569841	Richard Henry Lee	Fiery Virginian and author of July 2, 1776, formally authorizing the colonies' independence	19
1855569842	Thomas Jefferson	Author of an explanatory indictment, signed on July 4, 1776, that accused George III of establishing a military dictatorship	20
1855569843	Loyalists	Americas who fought for King George and earned the contempt of Patriots	21
1855569844	General Burgoyne	Blundering British general whose sloe progress south from Canada ended in disaster at Saratoga	22
1855569845	General Howe	British general who chose to enjoy himself in New York and Philadelphia rather than vigorously pursue the American enemy	23
1855569846	Benjamin Franklin	Shrewed and calculatingly "homespun" American diplomat who forged the alliance with France and later secured a generous peace treaty	24
1855569847	George Rogers Clark	Leader whose small force conquered key British forts in the west	25
1855569848	John Paul Jones	American naval commander who successfully harassed British shipping	26
1855569849	Saratoga	The decisive early battle of the American Revolution that led to the alliance with France	27
1855569850	Yorktown	The British defeat that led to the fall of North's government and the end of the war	28
1855569851	Joseph Brant	Mohawk chief who led many Iroquois to fight with Britain against American revolutionaries	29
1855569852	The Battle of Bunker Hill	Caused King George to proclaim the colonies in revolt and import Hessian troops to crush them	30
1855569853	Thomas Paine's Common Sense	Stirred growing colonial support for declaring independence from Britain	31
1855569854	Jefferson's Declaration of Independence	Inspired universal awareness of the American Revolution as a fight for the belief that "all men are created equal"	32
1855569855	The Patriot militia's political education and recruitment	Won neutral or pathetic Americans over to the Patriot cause	33
1855569856	The blundering of Burgoyne and Howe and the superb military strategy of Arnold and Washington	Led to the failure of Britain's grand strategy and the crucial American victory at Saratoga	34
1855569857	The Battle of Saratoga	Made France willing to become an ally of the United States	35
1855569858	Clark's military conquests and Jay's diplomacy	Led to American acquisition of the West up to the Mississippi River	36
1855569859	The trapping of Cornwallis between Washington's army and de Grasse's navy	Caused the British defeat at Yorktown and the collapse of North's Troy government	37
1855569860	The collapse of the North ministry and the Whig takeover of the British Government	Caused the British to began peace negotiations in Paris	38
1855569861	Jay's secret and separate negotiations with Britain	Led to a favorable peace treaty for the United States and the end of French schemes for a smaller, weaker America	39

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AP US History: The American Pageant, Chapter 7: Vocab Flashcards

Vocab highlighted for test from The American Pageant: Chapter 7

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1820194956	Mercantilism	Economic policy where a country's worth is measured by the amount of gold ad silver in its reserves	0
1820194957	Navigation Laws	Laws enforced on America by Britain in order to enforce Mercantilism. The first of these was used to oust the Dutch from American shipping. These laws restricted American trade to England and back via the use of English ships	1
1820194958	Enumerated Goods	Goods that could only be shipped to England	2
1820194959	Privy Council	Council that could void colonial laws but was used only 469 times out of 8,563 laws	3
1820194960	Salutary Neglect	A lack of enforcement on the part of Britain of colonial laws	4
1820194961	John Hancock	Man who amassed a fortune through smuggling	5
1820194962	Prime Minister George Grenville	An honest and noble financier who was not noted for tact, enforcing the Navigation Laws and and arousing the hate of the colonists	6
1820194963	Quartering Act	Act passed in 1765 that required certain colonies to provide food and quarters to British troops	7
1820194964	Stamp Act	Act that mandated the use of stamped paper of affixing stamps to certify the payment of tax. Stamps were required on bills of trade for about 50 items as well as on certain commercial ad legal documents	8
1820194965	"No taxation without representation"	The American battle cry	9
1820194966	Virtual Representation	Policy pushed by Grenville in which each Parliamentarian represented all British subjects	10
1820194967	Stamp Act Congress	A step toward colonial unity in which representatives from 9 of the 13 colonies met in New York to discuss the Stamp Tax	11
1820194968	Declaratory Act	Act that replaced the Stamp Act where Parliament had the right to bind the colonies in all maters whatsoever	12
1820194969	Townshend Acts	Act that put light taxes on lead, paper, paint and tea. All of these were later repealed except the Tea.	13
1820194970	Crispus Attucks	A former slave who was the supposed leader of the Boston Massacre	14
1820194971	Boston Massacre	An attack by British soldiers who were heavily provoked, but without orders, on American civilians, wounding or killing eleven civilians	15
1820194972	Lord North	A sycophant who persuaded King George III and led a group of Tory Whigs who hoped England would loose the war, fearing if England won then George III would become tyrannical	16
1820194973	Committees of Correspondence	Group set up by Sam Adams that spread propaganda used to keep the revolutionary spirit alive	17
1820194974	British East India Compony	Company facing bankruptcy who had excess tea and tried to sell it to Americans, triggering the Boston Tea Party	18
1820194975	Boston Tea Party	Event occurring on December 16, 1773 in which colonists who were led by Sam Adams disguised themselves as indians and dumped 342 chests of tea into the Boston Harbor	19
1820194976	Intolerable Acts	Acts passed by Parliament in 1774 to punish the colonists. They were called the Repressive Acts in Parliament	20
1820194977	Boston Port Act	Most drastic of the Intolerable Acts which closed the Boston Port	21
1820194978	Quebec Act	Act passed by Parliament that extended the boundaries of Quebec to the Ohio River, outraging colonists who were now closer to Catholics	22
1820194979	The First Continental Congress	Meeting in Philadelphia from September 5th through October 26th, 1774 in which 12 of the 13 colonies(Georgia didn't attend) sent representatives to talk about the Intolerable Acts, creating a list of grievances and the Declaration of Rights	23
1820194980	Declaration of Rights	Document created by the First Continental Congress	24
1820194981	"Shot Heard 'Round the World'"	The first shot by minutemen fighting the British at Lexington and Concord	25
1820194982	Lexington and Concord	Attacks by the British in an attempt to gain supplies and capture John Hancock and Sam Adams, they won at Lexington but were pushed back at Concord	26
1820194983	Hessians	German mercenaries brought in by George III in order to fight the Americans	27
1820194984	Marquis de Lafayette	An advantage that the Americans had. A Major General in the colonial army who was a great asset at the age of 19	28
1820194985	Baron von Steuben	Prussian who didn't speak English but whipped the colonists into shape	29

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Ch. 9 The Confederation and the Constitution (1776-1790) Flashcards

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948654744	Society of the Cincinnati	est. 1783; Exclusive, hereditary organization of former officers in the Continental Army. Many resented the pretentiousness of the order, viewing it as a vestige of pre-Revolutionary traditions.	0
948654745	Disestablished	To separate an official state church from tis connection with the government. Following the Revolution, all states disestablished the Anglican Church, though some New England states remained established Congregational Churches well into the 19th century.	1
948654746	Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom (1786)	Measure enacted by the Virginia legislature prohibiting state support for religious institutions and recognizing freedom of worship. Served as a model for the religion clause of the first amendment to the Constitution.	2
948654747	Civic Virtue	Willingness on the part of the citizens to sacrifice personal self-interest for the public good. Deemed a necessary component of a successful republic.	3
948654748	Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)	First American constitution that established the United States as a loose confederation of states under a weak national Congress, which was not granted the power to regulate commerce or collect taxes. The Articles were replaced bu a more efficient Constitution on 1789.	4
948654749	Old Northwest	Territories acquired by the federal government from the states, encompassing land northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi, and south of the Great Lakes. The well-organized management and sale of the land in the territories under the land ordinances of 1785 and 1787 established a precedent for handling future acquisitions.	5
948654750	Land Ordinance of 1785	Provided for the sale of land in the Old Northwest and earmarked the proceeds toward repaying the national debt.	6
948654751	Northwest Ordinance of 1787	Created a policy for administering the Northwest Territories. It included a path to statehood and forbade against the expansion of slavery into the territories.	7
948654752	Shay's Rebellion (1786)	Armed uprising of western Massachusetts debtors seeking lower taxes and to end property foreclosures. Though quickly put down, the insurrection inspired fears of "mob rule" among leading Revolutionaries.	8
948654753	Virginia Plan	"Large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress. The plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to come back with their own plan for apportioning representation.	9
948654754	New Jersey Plan (1787)	"Small state" plan put forth at the Philadelphia convention, proposing equal representation by state, regardless of population, in a unicameral legislature. Small states feared the more populous states would dominate the agenda under a proportional system.	10
948654755	Great Compromise (1787)	Popular term for the measure which reconciled the New Jersey and Virginia plans at the constitutional convention, giving states proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate. The compromise broke the stalemate at the convention and paved the way for subsequent compromises over slavery and the Electoral College.	11
948654756	Common Law	Laws that originate from court rulings and customs, as opposed to legislative statutes. The United States Constitution grew out of the Anglo-American common law tradition and thus provided only a general organizational framework for the new federal government.	12
948654757	Civil Law	Body of written law enacted through legislative statures or constitutional provisions. In countries where civil law prevails, judges must apply the statues precisely as written.	13
948654758	Three-fifths Compromise (1787)	Determined that each slave would be counted as three-fifths and involuntary servitude. Former Confederate States were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into the Union.	14
948654759	Anti-federalists	Opponents of the 1787 Constitution, they cast the document as antidemocratic, opposed the subordination of the states to the central government, and feared encroachment on individuals' liberties in the absence of a bill of rights.	15
948654760	Federalists	Proponents of the 1787 Constitution, they favored a strong national government, arguing that the checks and balances in the new Constitution would safeguard the people's liberties.	16
948654761	The Federalist Papers (1788)	Collection of essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton and published during the ratification debate to New York to lay our Federalists' arguments in favor of the new Constitution. Since their publication, these influential essays have served as an important source for constitutional interpretation.	17
948654762	Lord Sheffield	He was an English politician who came from a Yorkshire family, a branch of which had settled in the Kingdom of Ireland.His grandfather was a merchant who emigrated to Ireland after the Restoration. He inherited considerable wealth, and in 1769 bought Sheffield Place in Sussex from Lord De La Warr. Having served in the Army, he entered the House of Commons in 1780, and in that year was prominent against the anti-Catholic Lord George Gordon and the Gordon rioters.	18
948654763	Daniel Shays	He was an American soldier, revolutionary, and farmer famous for being one of the leaders of Shays' Rebellion, a populist uprising against oppressive debt collection and tax policies in Massachusetts in 1786 and 1787.	19
948654764	Patrick Henry	He was an American attorney, planter and politician who became known as an orator during the movement for independence in Virginia in the 1770s. A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and from 1784 to 1786. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and is remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech. Along with Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, he is regarded as one of the most influential champions of Republicanism and an invested promoter of the American Revolution and its fight for independence	20

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Period 1 - 1491 to 1607 Flashcards

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2273883261	What were native populations doing in North America before the arrival of Europeans?	Developing a wide variety of PERMS based on interactions with the environment.	0
2273898496	How did contacts between different ethnic groups affect North America?	The contacts changed the worldviews of each group.	1
2273912336	What did European overseas expansion do for societies on both sides of the Atlantic?	Created the Colombian Exchange.	2
2273927615	How and when did the earliest North American residents reach the continent?	They crossed a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago.	3
2273953691	Where did these native american immigrants reach in terms of boundaries and when?	They gradually spread through North and South America, reaching the tip of South America by 9,000 BCE.	4
2273960671	What were the more advanced cultures in the New World?	The Incas, Mayas, and Aztecs.	5
2273962998	Approximately how many separate cultures were there in the New World?	About 2,000.	6
2273968165	Who were the Anasazi and what did they do?	The Anasazi was a tribe in modern day Arizona and New Mexico, and they built cliff-dwellings, roads, and canals.	7
2273976054	What and when did Mississippi Valley tribes do?	They developed a farming culture around 800 BCE and built earthen pyramids and established trading networks throughout much of North America.	8
2273981906	What were Eastern Woodland Indians doing?	They were occupying the land east of the Mississippi River in small, self-governing clans.	9
2273984556	What were Plains Indians doing?	Plains Indians developed a nomadic lifestyle, following buffalo herds across the American Plains.	10
2273997539	Colombian Exchange	Biological and ecological exchange that occurred after European arrival in the New World; peoples of Europe and Africa came to the Americas; animals, plants, and diseases moved between the Old and New Worlds.	11
2274001314	What happened to the native populations in the Caribbean and Mexico?	Massive epidemics occurred when they contracted many European diseases.	12
2274007461	What happened to tribes along the Atlantic Coast and Ohio River Valley?	They were forced to adapt to white settlers and traders and became dependent on fur trading.	13
2274014975	What were Europeans trying to do to the native populations?	Attempting to civilize them and have them accept and convert to Christianity.	14
2274017451	What happened to Plains Indians?	They used guns and horses to expand their range and attack enemy tribes.	15
2274025965	What were the similarities between native populations and Europeans?	Both lived in village communities, shared a strong sense of spirituality, and divided labor by gender.	16
2274029705	What were the differences between native populations and Europeans?	Indians did not share the European concept of private property, and Indian children were often part of their mother's plan because many cultures were matrilineal.	17

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Period 1: 1491-1607 Flashcards

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2166866984	Bartolome de Las Casas	16th century, Spanish priest who wanted Europeans to treat the Native Americans better	0
2166867988	Juan Gines de Sepulveda	16th century, argued that Native Americans were less than human and should serve the Europeans	1
2166868449	Valladolid Debate	1550-51, formal debate between Las Casas and Sepulveda	2
2170358378	Mestizo	15th-17th century, a person of combined European and Native American descent	3
2170360579	Zambo	15th-17th century, individuals in the Americas who are of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry	4
2170364554	Cahokia	1400s, the largest and most influential urban settlement in the Mississippian culture of Indians	5
2170368805	Pueblo	modern and old communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America; the first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material	6
2170377023	Prince Henry the Navigator	15th century, important Portuguese political figure who initiated the age of exploration and discovery, especially down west coast of Africa	7
2170384225	Bartolomeu Dias	15th century, Portuguese explorer and first European to sail to tip of Africa and into Indian Ocean	8
2170388370	Vasco da Gama	15th-16th century, Portuguese explorer and first European to reach India by sea	9
2170397175	Amerigo Vespucci	15th-16th century, Italian explorer of the Atlantic Ocean, West Indies, and South America	10
2170402604	John Cabot	15th century, Italian explorer of mainland North America	11
2170403792	Christopher Columbus	15th century, Italian explorer of the West Indies financed by Ferdinand and Isabella	12
2170414020	Hernan Cortes	16th century, Spanish conquistador who brought down Aztec Empire	13
2170418209	Francisco Pizarro	16th century, Spanish conquistador who brought down the Incan Empire	14
2170425252	chattel slavery	system by which people are treated as the personal property of an owner and are bought and sold as if they were commodities	15
2170428589	Encomienda	a grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indian inhabitants of an area	16
2170432071	mulatto	a person of mixed white and black ancestry	17
2170434019	Columbian Exchange	refers to a period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds; exchanges of plants, animals, diseases and technology	18
2170436922	"Sea dogs"	16th century, English pirates at the time of Elizabeth I of England; primarily targeted the Spanish	19
2170440469	Mercantilism	16th-18th century, dominant economic theory of Europe; the world has a finite amount of wealth, and each state should accumulate as much wealth as possible via colonies, trade, and protective tariffs	20
2170446167	Richard Hakluyt	16th-17th century, English writer known for promoting the settlement of North America	21
2170460647	Juan de Onate	16th-17th century, Spanish conquistador and governor of New Mexico	22
2173410755	Algonquian	Native American society in the Northeast and along the Atlantic Seaboard that developed a mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economy that favored the development of permanent villages; similar to the Iroquois	23
2173414236	Iroquois	Native American society in the Northeast and along the Atlantic Seaboard that developed a mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economy that favored the development of permanent villages; similar to the Algonquian	24
2173432091	Sextant, joint-stock companies, compass, printing press	improvements in technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade that helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas	25
2173442963	Treaty of Tordesillas	1494, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire	26

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Campbell Biology 9th Edition - Chapter 6 Flashcards

A Tour of the Cell

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1200518557	light microscopy	uses light to permit magnification and viewing of cellular structures up to 1000 times their natural size	0
1200518558	scanning electron microscopy	A process that utilizes an electron beam to produce an image of the three-dimensional surface of biological samples; the sample is coated with a thin layer of a heavy metal such as gold or palladium and then exposed to an electron beam	1
1200518559	transmission electron microscopy	electrons penetrate an ultrathin section of tissue to strike a photographic plate	2
1200518560	cell fractionation	technique in which cells are broken into pieces and the different cell parts are separated	3
1200518561	cytosol	the aqueous part of the cytoplasm within which various particles and organelles are suspended	4
1200518562	nucleoid	A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.	5
1200518563	chromatin	long strands of DNA found in the eukaryotic cell nucleus; condense to form chromosomes	6
1200518564	nucleus	The organelle that contains the DNA and controls the processes of the cell	7
1200518565	nucleolus	The organelle where ribosomes are made, synthesized and partially assembled, located in the nucleus	8
1200518566	nuclear envelope	double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus	9
1200518567	ribosomes	organelles made of protein and RNA that direct protein synthesis in the cytoplasm	10
1200518568	nuclear lamina	A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus.	11
1200518569	endoplasmic reticulum	an internal membrane system in which components of cell membrane and some proteins are constructed	12
1200518570	rough ER	That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes, attached to nuclear membrane and synthesizes phospholipids for cell membrane	13
1200518571	smooth ER	synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells) involves adding hydroxyl groups to drugs to make soluble and easier to flush from body	14
1200518572	glycoproteins	proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them	15
1200518573	vesicles	small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell	16
1200518574	golgi apparatus	stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum	17
1200518575	lysosome	organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell	18
1200518576	phagocytosis	process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell	19
1200518577	food vacuole	A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis of microorganisms or particles to be used as food by the cell.	20
1200518578	contractile vacuole	saclike organelles that expand to collect excess water and contract to squeeze the water out of the cell	21
1200518579	central vacuole	A membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development.	22
1200518580	mitochondria	Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production	23
1200518581	chloroplast	a structure in the cells of plants and some other organisms that captures energy from sunlight and uses it to produce food	24
1200518582	endosymbiont theory	mitochondria and plastids, including chloroplasts, originated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. The engulfed cell and its host cell then evolved into a single organism.	25
1200518583	mitochondrial matrix	The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.	26
1200518584	cristae	Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.	27
1200518585	thylakoids	A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.	28
1200518586	grana	stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis	29
1200518587	stroma	The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.	30
1200518588	plastids	organelles that are surrounded by a double membrane and contain their own DNA	31
1200518589	peroxisomes	Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals	32
1200518590	cytoskeleton	a microscopic network of actin filaments and microtubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells that gives the cell shape and coherence	33
1200518591	motor proteins	a protein that interacts with cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell.	34
1200518592	microtubules	hollow tubes of protein about 25 nanometers in diameter, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell, composed of tubulin polymers	35
1200518593	microfilaments	thinner, solid rods of protein that enable the cell to move or change shape when protein subunits slide past one another, composed of actin subunits	36
1200518594	intermediate filaments	range from 7-11nm in diameter, and strengthen the cell and help maintain its shape, stabilize the positions of organelles, and stabilize the position of the cell with respect to surrounding cells through specialized attachment to the cell membrane, composed of keratin subunits	37
1200518595	keratin	hard protein material found in the epidermis, hair, and nails	38
1200518596	actin	A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.	39
1200518597	tubulin	globular protein subunit forming the hollow cylinder of microtubules	40
1200518598	centrosome	Structure present in the cytoplasm of animal cells, important during cell division; functions as a microtubule-organizing center. A centrosome has two centrioles.	41
1200518599	centrioles	One of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope; play a role in cell division.	42
1200518600	cilia	short, hair-like structures made of microtubules that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell	43
1200518601	flagella	whiplike tails found in one-celled organisms to aid in movement	44
1200518602	basel body	a structure resembling a centriole that produces a cilium or flagellum and anchors this structure within the plasma membrane	45
1200518603	dynein	A contractile protein connecting microtubules in the '9+2- arrangement of cilia and eukaryotic flagella. The contraction of dynein produces the characteristic movement of these structures.	46
1200518604	cortex	(1) The outer region of cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell, lying just under the plasma membrane, that has a more gel-like consistency than the inner regions, due to the presence of multiple microfilaments. (2) In plants, ground tissue that is between the vascular tissue and dermal tissue in a root or eudicot stem.	47
1200518605	myosin	A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber, thick filaments	48
1200518606	pseudopodia	A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding	49
1200518607	cytoplasmic streaming	A circular flow of cytoplasm, involving myosin and actin filaments, that speeds the distribution of materials within cells.	50
1200518608	cell wall	strong supporting layer of cellulose or chitin around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria	51
1200518609	middle lamina	A thin layer of adhesive extracellular material, primarily pectins, found between the primary walls of adjacent young plant cells.	52
1200518610	primary cell wall	A relatively thin and flexable cell wall furthest outside that is first secreted by a plant cell	53
1200518611	secondary cell wall	Added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall, a strong and durable matrix often deposited in several laminated layers for plant cell protection and support	54
1200518612	extracellular matrix	The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded, consisting of protein and polysaccharides.	55
1200518613	proteoglycans	a glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells.	56
1200518614	fibronectin	a glycoprotein that helps animal cells attach to the extracellular matrix.	57
1200518615	integrins	in animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.	58
1200518616	plasmodesmata	An open channel in the cell wall of plants through which strands of cytosol connect from adjacent cells	59
1200518617	gap junctions	provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells	60
1200518618	tight junctions	Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid	61
1200518619	desmosomes	specialized junctions that hold adjacent cell together, consist of dense plate at point of adhesion plus extracellular cementing material	62

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Brain and Behavior Exam 1 Flashcards

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2911500809	Describe the similarities and differences between the human brain and brains of other species	Similarities: brain areas, chemicals, proteins Differences: Overall brain size, size of individual parts (large neocortex in primates)	0
2911505226	What is gray matter?	Nucleus in the CNS and Ganglion in the PNS	1
2911505227	What is white matter?	Tract in the CNS and Nerve in the PNS Appear white because of mylenation	2
2916086209	What is the somatic nervous system?	Movements that you are aware of and are consciously making	3
2916087824	What is the Autonomic Nervous System?	The processes that your body controls for you	4
2916093111	What are afferent nerves?	Sensory neurons going TOWARDS the brain	5
2916099244	What are efferent nerves?	Neurons sending messages AWAY from the brain	6
2916107718	Where are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems located and what are their functions?	Located in the efferent nerves of the ANS Symp: Arousal Para: Calming	7
2911507621	What are the three primary divisions of the brain and what major structures are in those divisions?	1) Hindbrain - 2)Midbrain - 3)Forebrain -	8
2911511597	What 3 structures comprise the brain stem?	1) Medulla 2) Pons 3) Midbrain	9
2911514866	What major functions is the medulla involved with?	Base of the brain stem Contrals vital reflexes Control via cranial nerves Damage to medulla can cause coma or death	10
2911517677	What major functions is the pons involved with?	Middle of the brainstem (lump) Sleep	11
2911518934	What major functions is the cerebellum involved with?	Movement Well-learned movements Sensory timing Balance and postural control	12
2911519969	What major functions is the midbrain involved with?	Top portion of the brainstem (right above pons) Reflexive orienting to visual and auditory stimuli Intrinsic/descending pain control Substantia nigra located here	13
2911522707	What are the structures within the midbrain? Functions?	Substantia Nigra	14
2911523841	What major functions is the thalamus involved with?	Relay station/filter for sensory information on its way to cortex Involved in many other systems	15
2911523842	What major functions is the hypothalamus involved with?	Communicates with pituitary gland to alter hormone release Involved in drive-related behaviors and maintenance of homeostasis	16
2911526921	What major functions is the pituitary gland involved with?	Endocrine gland Attached to hypothalamus by pituitary stalk Makes and releases hormones into bloodstream	17
2911527005	What major functions is the pineal gland involved with?	Makes and secretes melatonin Daily and seasonal rhythms	18
2911529726	What major functions is the corpus collosum involved with?	Largest hemisphere-connecting tract	19
2911533681	What major functions is the longitudinal fissure involved with?	A groove that separates right and left hemispheres	20
2911539076	What is the function of the telencephalon?	Largest division of the brain and it subserves language (aspects of language which are of interest to linguistics) Consists of basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, and olfactory bulb Anterior part of the brain	21
2911541464	What is the function of the diencephalon?	Above the brain stem and embodies the thalamus and hypothalamus	22
2911543565	What is the general function of cranial nerves?	Enter/exit the ventral surface of the brainstem and are important in neurological exams Information comes in through these nerves and eventually ends up in the sensory cortex	23
2911547324	What does "sensory and motor for face and head" mean?	Cranial Nerves allow facial expression and jaw movement Damage to connections from cortex to brains stem contralaterally damage and weaken muscles of the lower portion of the face	24
2916016447	Describe a motor neuron	The cell body lives in the spinal cord and the axon is part of a nerve in your body The terminal synapse with muscle fibers	25
2916025180	Describe a somatosensory neuron?	Touch neuron The soma lives outside of the spinal cord and has a long axon that has specialized endings in the skin and its terminals are in the spinal cord	26
2911551186	How many cranial nerves are there?	12 pairs (24 nerves)	27
2911554142	What is the general function of the limbic system?	Memory and emotion Regulation of motivated behaviors Hippocampus, amygdala, etc located here	28
2911554143	What is the general function of the basal ganglia?	Movement Interconnected structures: striatum, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra	29
2916213810	The lobes of the Cortex	1) Frontal 2) Parietal 3) Temporal 4) Occiptal	30
2916217991	Function of the Occipital lobe	Vision Primary and secondary visual cortex	31
2916221023	Function of the Frontal Lobe	Prefrontal cortex: executive functions Planning, working memory, insight, impulse control, last to develop	32
2916229048	What structure is located within the frontal lobe?	Motor Cortex: Voluntary movement, somatotopic organization, cerebellum and basal ganglia influence movement talking to motor cortex	33
2916238582	Function of the Parietal Lobe and what structure is located here	Somatosensory Corex: first cortex to process somatosensory info and somatotopic organization Spatial Organization Visual association corrtex	34
2916254022	Temporal Lobe	Auditory Cortex - hearing Spoken Language comprehension Visual Association cortex	35
2916236607	What area of the frontal lobe is important for language?	Broca's area	36
2911559035	What are the 2 major structures of the limbic system?	Hippocampus and Amygdala	37
2911561742	What structures comprise the Central Nervous System?	Brain and spinal cord	38
2911564141	What structures comprise the Peripheral Nervous System?	Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System	39
2911566463	How is the Peripheral Nervous System divided?	SNS and ANS ANS --> Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS	40
2914913568	All behavior, both normal and abnormal, including perceptions, thoughts, movements, and complex social behaviors, are correlated with...	brain and nervous system activity	41
2914917870	Define and discuss the field of biopsychology	The scientific study of the biology of behavior	42
2914920174	Describe six areas of neuroscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychological injury	Neuroanatomy - structure of the nervous system Neurophysiology - Functions and activities of the nervous system Neurochemistry - chemical bases of neural activity Neuropathology - nervous system disorders Neuropharmacology - Effects of drugs on neural activity Neuroendocrinology - Interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system	43
2914924641	What are the advantages of humans and nonhumans as subject in biopsychological research?	Humans: can follow instructions, make subjective reports, and are cheaper to work with Nonhumans: simpler brains, comparative approach, ethical reasons	44
2914924642	What are the disadvantages of humans and nonhumans as subject in biopsychological research?	Humans: Ethical limitations, complex brain Nonhumans: only can get a comparison to the human brain, no subjective reports	45
2914973121	True experiments are not always possible. Why and give examples?	Ethics, costs, etc Ex: We don't/can't assign some people to smoke cigarettes and others not to, We can't subject some participants to a disease, etc	46
2914981867	What are converging operations? Give examples	Multiple approaches; strengths of some compensate for the weaknesses of others Ex: Epidemiological studies in humans, Exposure and toxicity studies in animal models (not in humans but allows experimentation)	47
2914992100	What is preponderance of the evidence? Give examples	The majority of the evidence points to a single answer Ex: Smoking cigarettes correlated with lung cancer, longer someone smokes --> more likely to get lung cancer, exposure to smoke in non-smokers --> increased rick of lung cancer	48
2914929082	Explain how converging operations contributed to the study of Korsakoff's syndrome	Korsakoff's Syndrome: severe retrograde amnesia and confabulation, but intelligences in tact (often seen in severe alcoholism) We don't assign some people to have poor diet, and some people to be alcoholics. We do however see, that the syndrome typically is a result of poor nutrition and is exacerbated by alcohol The above correlation was seen in rats	49
2914930815	What are the four major themes of our approach to Biopsychology	1) Thinking (critically and) Creatively about Biopsychology 2) Clinical Implications 3) The Evolutionary Perspective 4) Neuroplasticity	50
2915026129	Describe what is meant by the major theme "Thinking Creatively about Biopsychology"	Base thinking on the evidence presented Consider physiology, development, evolutionary history, emotional state, current circumstances, experience, function, etc Consider the source of your information	51
2915036234	Describe what is meant by the major theme "Clinical Implications" of biopsychology	The study of diseased or damaged brains leads to new knowledge; new knowledge leads to new treatments	52
2915043598	Explain the parts of Psychological research (basic, applied, translational)	Basic - Conducted for the purpose of acquiring knowledge (basic research programs) Applied - Intended to bring about direct benefit to humankind, animal studies Translational - Direct steps taken in practical application (ex: human drug trials)	53
2915056747	Describe what the major theme "The evolutionary perspective" in biopsychology means	Consideration of environmental pressures on human evolution May use a comparative approach	54
2915062544	Describe what the major theme "Neuroplasticity" in biopsychology means	The brain is plastic, not static The brain is constantly strengthening connections between neurons	55
2914935741	Explain and discuss why thinking about the biology of behavior in terms of a traditional physiological-psychological dichotomy is flawed	Behavior is not physiological or psychological What is psychological IS physiological	56
2914938706	What is the mind-brain connection and describe examples?	Dualism vs. monism monism - "the mind is what the brain does" What effects the brain, effects the mind Ex: HM had his hippocampus removed and could not make new memories Ex: Removing one hemisphere of the brain effects contralateral processing Ex: Blindsight, throwing a ball to someone blind and them still being able to catch it or know where it is going	57
2915087297	How does stimulation of brain activity effect the mind-brain connection?	Evokes experiences or behavioral tendencies Drugs of abuse stimulate certain brain regions and reinforce behaviors	58
2915118105	Experiments vs. Nonexperiments	Experiment: involves the manipulation of variables and CAUSAL relations can be drawn Nonexperiment: researcher does not control the variables of interest and ASSOCIATIONS can be drawn	59
2915124990	Quasiexperimental studies	Studies of groups of subjects exposed to conditions in the real world	60
2915127212	Case Studies	Focus is on a single individual Often test a hypothesis, not necessarily generalizable	61
2915132597	Define what is meant by a Causal Relation	Requires more rigorous science Variables must be manipulated and systematically tested against a control group (you cannot just measure variables) Correlation does not imply causation Generalizability is also an important factor to consider	62
2915144108	Describe Darwin's evidence for evolution	Presented 3 kinds of evidence for species' evolution, and argued that evolution occurs through natural selection 1) Fossil Evidence of evolution 2) Structural similarities among living species suggest common ancestors 3)Impact of selective breeding	63
2915182247	What is natural selection?	The idea that heritable traits that are associated with high rates of survival and reproduction are preferentially passed on to future generations	64
2915187160	Why did Darwin prefer the term "decent with modification" to "evolution"?	Evolution denotes a change that will always be better than what came previously. As the environment changes, however, preferred traits will also change. Thus a trait is advantageous to an individual at one time, might be detrimental at another time if the environment has changed.	65
2915187161	In what ways has the human brain evolved?	1) The human brain has increased in size during evolution 2) Most of the increase in size has occurred in the cerebrum 3) Increased convolutions (folds in cortex) = increase the volume of the cerebral cortex	66
2915237848	Most human phenomena (facial expressions, intelligence, sexual orientation, etc) are based in part of...	genetics	67
2915242813	What are chromosomes, what types exist within humans, and how many are there?	22 paired chromosomes (46 chromosomes total 2 sex chromosomes located in the nucleus of the cell and contain DNA	68
2915254030	What does the sequence of DNA determine?	The gene	69
2915255767	What is a gene?	Contains information on hereditary characteristics	70
2915257830	What is a phenotype?	An observable trait Ex: Hair color, eye color, height, susceptibility to certain disease	71
2915245706	What is a karyotype?	the number and appearance of the chromosomes	72
2915251047	What is a genotype?	The genes you have for a trait Ex: BB, ww, Bw	73
2915265238	What are alleles?	Two genes that control the same trait	74
2915268254	Homozygous vs. Heterozygous alleles	Homo: identical alleles for a trait Hetero: different alleles for a trait	75
2915273619	What is meant by gene dominance?	A gene that shows a strong effect in the heterozygous or homozygous condition	76
2915275618	What is meant by a gene being recessive?	A gene that shows a strong effect only in the homozygous condition	77
2915282365	What are sex-linked genes and where are they typically located?	The genes on the sex chromosomes and are usually found on the X because it has a lot more genes on it than the Y	78
2915288952	What are sex-limited genes and where are they located?	Present in both sexes but has an effect only (mostly) in one sex Ex: genes for chest hair and genes for breast size They are on autosomal chromosomes and are "turned on" under influence of sex hormones	79
2915295607	Describe the structure of DNA	Double stranded Four base pairs Self-replicating	80
2915189552	Outline the mechanisms of gene expression	1) Strands of DNA unravel 2) A copy is made (messenger RNA) through transcription 3) Protein is built based on code of mRNA through process of translation	81
2915314632	Define Transcription	A strand of RNA is copied from one of the strands of exposed DNA --> RNA goes to cytoplasm DNA-->RNA	82
2915317532	Define Translation	Messenger RNA attaches to a ribosome --> ribosome reads each codon and attaches appropriate amino acid RNA-->Protein	83
2915323556	What is a codon?	3 base pairs which code for an amino acid	84
2915330021	How many meters of DNA are in a cell? In a person?	2 meters per cell 100 trillion m per person	85
2915333219	What is chromatin?	Condensed DNA coiled around a core of histone proteins	86
2915339147	What does the structure of coiled DNA have strong implications for?	gene expression To express a gene, the coil where the gene is located needs to be loosened (by chemical groups - methyl/acetyl)	87
2915191146	Describe the difference between genetics and epigenetics	Genetics: the genes we get from our parents Epigenetics: alterations that can occur to our genes based on experience, and they can be heritable	88
2915369701	What are especially powerful experiences that may influence epigenetics?	prenatal and neonatal experiences	89
2915192225	What are the two main epigenetic changes that can occur? Describe each	1) Histone Remodeling - modifications to a histone protein (around which DNA is coiled) can either decrease or increase gene expression 2) DNA methylation - the attachment of a methyl group to DNA tends to reduce the expression of adjacent genes	90
2915195590	Describe 3 classic examples of research on behavioral development and how each illustrates gene-experience interaction	1) Selective Breeding of "maze-bright" and "maze dull" rats 2) Phenylketonuria (PKU): a single-gene metabolic disorder 3) Development of birdsong	91
2915196999	Explain heritability estimates	How much of the variance in a characteristic is due to differences in heredity (genes) Contribution of genetic differences to phenotypic differences	92
2915382659	How could genes affect behaviors?	Altering neurotransmitter systems and other chemicals, thus how an individual processes info, perceives stimuli, and responds to the environment Altering physical appearance and thus how the environment responds to the individual	93
2915394341	How do we know about heritability of behavior?	Biochem methods: identification of certain genes linked to behaviors or disorders Twin and adoption studies	94
2915203162	Describe the twin studies discussed in class. What were their strengths weaknesses, and what they tell us about the interaction of genes and experience?	MZ and DZ twins 1) Greater concordance in MZ twins than DZ twins --> the more DNA 2 individuals share, the more likely they are to share a trait Suggests high heritability 2) Same concordance in MZ twins and DZ twins --> amount of shared DNA doesn't impact likelihood of sharing trait Suggest low heritability	95
2915418632	Twins Reared Apart	59 pairs of MZ twins 47 pairs of DZ twins Extensive intelligence and personality testing Adult MZ twins more similar on all measures than adult DZ twins	96
2915429908	What is meant by the term "virtual twins"?	Children of the same age, with no relation to each other, adopted into a home at the same time	97
2915437039	What are the problems with twin studies?	MZ twins usually share chorion and blood supply...so could be genetics or could be prenatal environment The studies assume that DZ twins are treated as similarly as MZ twins	98
2915445405	What are the problems with adoption studies?	Biological children tend to have similar mental problems to biological parents even if raised by "great" adoptive parents...could be genes, BUT could be reflection of poor prenatal environment	99
2915461865	What have we learned from twin studies of the effect of experience on heritability?	1) Intelligence develops as an interaction of inheritance and experience 2) Can inherit potential for superior intelligence, but might not be realized in poverty-stricken environment	100
2915474980	What is the interaction of genetic factors and experience on behavioral development?	Ex: Raised maze-dull and maze-bright rats (impoverished areas --> more mistakes) Ex: PKU Disorder (mitigated entirely by a special diet during critical development period --> interaction between genetics and environment	101
2915497157	Define Concordance	The presence of the same trait in both individuals of a pair of twins	102
2915500436	What is an autosomal chromosome?	Chromosomes that come in matched pairs In mammals, these are all of the chromosomes except the sex chromosomes	103
2915502647	What are nucleotide bases and how are they paired?	A class of chemical substances that includes adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine - the constituents of the genetic code A-->T C--> G	104
2915508136	What are proteins?	15% of body mass Some become part of the body's structure and others are enzymes that control the rate of chemical reactions	105
2915617542	What are neurons?	Specialized cells for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals Basic units of the nervous system	106
2915626151	What are the similarities between neurons and other cells in the body?	Organelles, including plasma membrane, ER, nucleus, mitochondria, cytoplasm, ribosomes, Golgi complex, vesicles, microtubules	107
2915648641	What is a cell nucleus?	A structure in the central region of a cell, containing the nucleolus and chromosomes	108
2915655013	What is the nucleolus?	A structure within the nucleus of a cell that produces the ribosomes	109
2915657532	What is a neurotransmitter?	A chemical that is released by a terminal button; has excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron	110
2915663525	What is a cells mitochondrion?	An organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients	111
2915666475	What is ATP?	A molecule of prime importance to cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy	112
2915673670	What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum?	Parallel layers of membrane found within the cytoplasm of a cell Two types: smooth and rough ER Smooth: site of sysnthesis of lipids and provides channels for the segregation of molecules Rough: contains ribosomes and involved with production of proteins	113
2915685901	What is the Golgi apparatus?	A complex of parallel membranes in the cytoplasm that wraps the products of a secretory cell	114
2915693222	What is the cell membrane and what is its function?	A phospholipid bilayer with signaling proteins and channel proteins embedded in it that is semipermeable to let water, oxygen, and CO2 move freely Na+, CA2+, K+, Cl- move thru ion channels	115
2915630000	What are the differences between neurons and other cells in the body?	Morphology Communication with each other, often very long distances Postmitotic	116
2915638277	Define the term "postmitotic"	Cells that are no longer dividing Once they have gone where they are going to stay in the brain, with their distinct shapes, they do not divide any longer	117
2915601027	Compare and contrast multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons	Multipolar: Cell body with dendrites and an axon (majority of the brain's neurons) Bipolar: Long axon with cell body with in the middle and two axons branching from opposite sides Unipolar: Long axon that bifurcates at a cell body (cell body is not attached to axon from two sides)	118
2915602476	Identify the parts of a synapse	1) Synapse, Synaptic Cleft, Synaptic Gap - space between the terminal and dendrites of two neurons where chemicals cross 2) Presynaptic - conducts action potential from soma to terminal 3) Postsynaptic - neuron that is receiving chemicals	119
2915605067	Describe the techniques used to visualize neurons	1) Electron Microscopy - microscope that produces an electronically magnified image of a specimen for observation 2) Golgi Stain - heavy metal stain penetrates and fills a subpopulation of neurons 3) Nissl Stain - Stains all cell bodies, but you cannot see the entire morphology of the neuron (good indication of neural density) 4) Fluorescence microscopy - Certain things are amplified with a fluorescent tag 5) Tracing Studies - Tracing to and from where axons project from	120
2915608094	Briefly describe 6 kinds of glial cells and their functions in the nervous system	1) Cell Body - "Soma" contains all of the organelles of the cell 2) Dendrites - Receiving ends of neurons that receive signals from other neurons 3)Axon - Myelinated channel through which the action potential travels, microtubules inside for transmission of information 4) Terminal Buttons - End of the axon that stores and releases neurotransmitters 5) Axon Hillock - first part of axon that decides if the action potential will be passed on or not 6)Synapse - Space between the terminal button and dendrite of two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released	121
2915825056	What is the "new" definition of nucleus? And how is this related to neurological diseases?	A group of neurons with a common location, common connections, and common functions Many neurological diseases are due to loss of a group of neurons (nucleus)	122
2915837767	What are glial cells and what do they do?	Support neurons by means of communication by changing the way that neurons function	123
2915844810	What type of Glial cells are Schwann and Oligodendrocytes?	Myelinated glial cells Schwann - myelinates PNS Oligo - myelinate CNS	124
2915853886	What type of glial cells are Microglia?	Search for and respond to injury or disease Multiply, engulf cellular debris, trigger inflammatory response	125
2915867836	What type of glial cells are satellite cells?	Surround cell bodies of neurons in the PNS	126
2915871864	What type of glial cells are ependymal cells?	In the walls of the ventricles and help make cerebrospinal fluid Help nurture and support the stem cells that are in the brain	127
2915878810	What type of glial cells are astrocytes?	Wrap around terminal of related axons, remove waste material, provide structural support, form dense scars upon injury, dialate blood vessels in active regions of the brain, provide nutrients from blood to neurons, BBB	128
2915610300	Describe the structure and function of the blood brain barrier	A barrier around blood vessels in the brain that protect neurons from all the chemicals/toxins that we cannot flood neurons with	129
2915895398	What are endothelial cells?	Cells of capillary walls that form tight junctions but are made of a thin layer of cells Surrounded by astrocytes	130
2915901431	BBB keeps out:	Viruses and bacteria Many chemical and nutrients	131
2915905651	BBB lets through:	Small uncharged molecules Fat-soluble molecules Glucose L-Dopa Some viruses (ex: chicken pox, herpes)	132
2915610301	Describe the incomplete regions of the BBB	These are called Circumbentricular organs and they are important for the brain to sense toxins in the blood that need to be removed	133
2915960814	What are the contributions of Camillo Golgi to our understanding of neurons?	Revolutionary method of staining individual nerve and cell structures by using silver nitrate	134
2915965587	What are the contributions of Santiago Ramon y Cajal to our understanding of neurons?	Fine structure of NS and especially of brain and spinal cord	135
2915988108	What causes the onset of Parkinson's Disease?	Loss of substantia nigra in midbrain	136
2916001379	What causes the onset of Huntington's Disease?	Loss of caudate and putamen in forebrain	137
2916004550	What causes the onset of ALS?	Loss of motor neurons in cerebral cortex and spinal cord	138

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Chapter 3-Water and the Fitness of the Environment Flashcards

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996561587	Polar Molecule	Molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, resulting in the molecule having a positive end and a negative end	0
510115313	The four properties of water that make earth suitable for life:	1. Cohesion 2. Moderation of temperature 3. Expansion upon freezing 4. Versatility as a solvent	1
122632442	Cohesion	Hydrogen bonds keep the molecules together, leads to transport of water against gravity	2
154599486	Adhesion	Clinging of one substance to another	3
418550524	Surface Tension	A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid; Essential for transfer of energy from wind to water to create waves<--necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes & oceans	4
1014560426	Moderation of Temperature	one of the emergent properties of water; water has this effect on air by either absorbing or releasing its heat	5
23490933	Heat Bank	Stores heat; Can absorb/release large amount of heat with only slight change in its own temperature	6
355256176	Kinetic Energy	Energy of motion	7
825124557	Heat	total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion; form of energy; depends on volume of matter	8
403065203	Temperature	A measure of heat intensity that represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules, regardless of volume.	9
592399850	Water freezes at what degree on the Celsius scale?	0 C	10
450129789	Water boils at what degree on the Celsius scale?	100°C	11
295013311	What temperature is considered physiological temperature on the Celsius scale?	37°C	12
706410988	What is room temperature on the Celsius scale?	20-25°C	13
505165644	Calorie (cal)	Amount of heat it takes to raise temp of 1g of water by 1°C	14
764521344	Kilocalorie (kcal)	A thousand calories; the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C; calories on food packages-actually kcals	15
536833825	Joule (j)	another unit of energy where 1 J = 0.239 cal or 1 cal = 4.184 J	16
531821404	Specific Heat	amount of heat that must be absorbed/lost for 1g of that substance to change temp by 1°C	17
788943582	Evaporation	Liquid to gas	18
838137122	Heat of Vaporization	Quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted from liquid to gas	19
793587902	Evaporative Cooling	Average temperature drops	20
747533111	Expansion Upon Freezing	at 0 degrees Celsius, water molecules become locked into a crystalline lattic (ice)	21
570019602	Universal Solvent	Water	22
790468614	Solution	A liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.	23
878873132	Solvent	Substance that does the dissolving	24
598760313	Solute	A dissolved substance	25
719351877	Aqueous solution	A solution in which water is the solvent	26
548437558	Hydration Shell	The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion	27
596520790	Hydrophilic Substances	any substance that has an affinity for water; ionic or polar substances	28
10706129	Colloid	A stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid: -ex: cotton	29
74897986	Hydrophobic	"Water-fearing"; pertaining to nonpolar and nonionic molecules (or parts of molecules) that do not dissolve in water -ex: Olive oill	30
454553548	Molecular Mass (daltons)	The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule	31
832708794	Molecular Formula	A chemical formula for a molecular compound that shows how many atoms of each element are in the molecule; atoms which make 1 molecule	32
622924151	1 Dalton	mass of proton	33
454117293	Mole (mol)	Quantity; 6.02*10^23-Avogadro's number	34
740542960	Molar Mass (grams) g/mol	The mass in grams of 1 mol of a substance	35
21530329	Molarity (M) moles/L	number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution (concentration)	36
437815304	Hydroxide Ion [OH-]	The oxygen-hydrogen ion of water molecule formed when the hydrogen ion H+ has dissociated from the water molecule.	37
464992722	Hydrogen Ion [H+]	a positively charged atom of hydrogen that lost an electro	38
124255533	Acid	solute that donates hydrogen ions to solutions	39
851315062	Base	solute that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.	40
930395174	Neutral Solution	[OH-]=[H+]	41
873405764	pH scale	measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0 to 14. O is most acidic + and 14 is most basic + or akaline.	42
829009172	Log Scale	10 X difference from one pH value to the next	43
445963184	Buffers	A substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution.	44

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1278217968	Mean of a Sample	0
1278217969	Range	1
1278217970	Sum of Squares (Sum of Squared Deviations) Definitional Formula	2
1278217971	Variance- Definitional Formula	3
1278217972	Standard Deviation- Definitional Formula	4
1278217973	Sum of Squares (Sum of Squared Deviations) Computational Formula	5
1278217974	Variance of Population	6
1278217975	Standard Deviation of Population	7
1278217976	Variance of Sample	8
1278217977	Standard Deviation of Sample	9
1278217978	Z-score Formula	10
1278217979	Raw Score from a Z-score Formula (X-score)	11
1278217980	Standard Error	12
1278217981	Z-score for Sample of Means	13
1278217982	Effect Size for z Test (Cohen's d)	14
1278217983	Confidence Interval for z Test (Lower End)	15
1278217984	Confidence Interval for z Test (Upper End)	16
1348020928	Estimated Standard Error (t statistic)	17
1348020929	t-statistic Formula	18
1348020930	Degrees of Freedom (t-statistic)	19
1348020931	Estimated Cohen's d (t-statistic)	20
1348020932	Percentage of Variance Explained (t-statistic)	21
1348020933	Independent Measures t-test	22
1348020934	Estimated Standard Error (Independent Measures t-test) when sample size is the same (n1=n2)	23
1348020935	Pooled Variance (Independent Measures t-test)	24
1348020936	Estimated Standard Error (Independent Measures t-test) when sample size is NOT the same (n1≠n2)	25
1348020937	Degrees of Freedom (Independent Measures t-test) 2 groups	26
1348020938	Estimated Cohen's d (Independent Measures t-test)	27
1348020939	Percentage of Variance Explained (Independent Measures t-test) same as for t-test but use df(total)	28