Human Cloning Cons Debate
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Technology
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Holt Biology Chapter 2 Section 1
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Unit 1 Chapter 2: Chemistry of Life Section 1: Nature of Matter Atom Smallest unit of matter that can?t be broken down by chemical means Protons, Neutrons, Electrons Electron cloud Region around nucleus that electrons can occupy at any time Stable atoms usually have no charge 1 electron for every 1 proton Elements Pure substance made of one kind of atom Differ in number of protons Ex. Carbon-12 (Carbon has 6 protons) 12-6=6 Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons Compound Substance made of joined atoms of 2 or more different elements Chemical formula identifies what is in compound and those elements? proportions Ex. NaCl 1 Sodium for every 1 Chlorine Covalent Bonds Two or more atoms share electrons to form a molecule Molecule Group of atoms held together by covalent bonds
Weiten Chapter 7
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Chapter 7: Human Memory Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory? Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory The role of attention Focusing awareness Divided attention Encoding: Getting Information into Memory The role of attention Levels of processing Incoming information processed at different levels Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes Encoding levels: Structural = shallow Phonemic = intermediate Semantic = deep Figure 7.3 Levels-of-processing theory Enriching Encoding Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Thinking of examples
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 7b
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Molecular Geometry 1 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory Electron concentrations are arranged so as to be at maximum distance. Why? Electrons repel each other. Number of Electron Concentrations H H H H C ? ? ? ? Ex: CH4 O F F C ? ? ? ? Ex: CF2O Number of Electron Concentrations all 4 bonded = tetrahedral Ex: CH4 H H H H C ? ? ? ? 4 Regions of e? Conc. 5 Chemistry textbook, p. 169 3 bonded = pyramidal Ex: NH3 H H H N ? ? ? 4 Regions of e? Conc. 6 Chemistry textbook, p. 167 2 bonded = bent 104.5? Ex: H2O H H O ? ? 4 Regions of e? Conc. 7 Chemistry textbook, p. 170 1 bonded = linear Ex: HF H F ? 4 Regions of e? Conc. 8 Chemistry textbook, p. 170 All 3 bonded = trigonal planar 2 bonded = bent 120? Ex: BI3 Ex: GeF2 1 bonded = linear Ex: SO 3 Regions of e? Conc.
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 6b
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Section 6B Types of Bonds 1 Covalent Bonds usually nonmetals little or no ?EN (Therefore, atoms share electrons.) The 2 shared electrons are called a bonding pair. located between atoms most of the time Covalent Bonds The negative region between the atoms attracts the nuclei with an electrostatic force. Diatomic Elements H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 ? triple bond ? double bond H N O Halogens Lewis Structures sometimes called dot diagrams show the valence e? only use a dash to represent a bonding pair Lewis Structures Cl2 + Cl Cl Cl Cl + Cl Cl Cl Cl Lewis Structures H2 + H H H H + H H H H Lewis Structures H2O + H O H + H O H + H O H + H O H Lewis Structures O2 O + O O O O + O O O Lewis Structures N2 N + N N N N + N N N Lewis Structures C2H2 + C C H + H + C C H H + C C H + H + C C H H
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 6a
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Basics of Bonding 1 The second law of thermodynamics tells us that things tend to lose energy. Balls roll downhill. Electrons return to ground state. Atoms link or bond to each other. 2 Atoms bond because they Lose energy Gain stability 3 Energy/stability Unbonded Bonded 4 BJU Press Chemistry textbook p. 140 Noble gases (8 outer e?) are the most stable elements. Elements gain, lose, or share electrons to attain the ?noble-gas electron configuration.? This is called the octet rule. 5 Ionic: Metals/nonmetals Covalent: Nonmetals/nonmetals Metallic: Metals/metals Types of Bonds A property affecting ionic and covalent bonds The tendency of objects to have regions of opposite charge Polarity Examples: N and S poles (+) and (?) ends of a battery polar bond
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 5b
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Periodic Trends 1 Sizes of Atoms Increase from top to bottom on the periodic table Why? There are higher energy levels, and electrons are farther from the nucleus. Atomic Radii Sizes of Atoms Decrease from left to right on the periodic table Why? There are more protons in the nucleus attracting more electrons (electrostatic attraction). Atomic Radii Atomic Radii 4 p. 113 of Chemistry textbook (BJU Press) Question Why do atoms get larger as you go down the periodic table? They are heavier. They are less dense. Electrons are further from the nucleus. Electrons are bigger. 5 (Comparing the size of an atom to that of its ion, not going across or up the table) Sizes of Atoms Ionic Radii Sizes of Atoms Atoms that lose outer electrons have smaller positive ions (metals).
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 4c
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Useful Element Notations The number of protons in the nucleus Determines the identity of the atom (which element it is) Atomic Number (Z) If you change the number of protons, the atom changes to another element. The total number of particles in the nucleus?protons and neutrons The total number of particles that make up the mass of the atom Mass Number (A) Atoms of an element which have various amounts of neutrons but the same number of protons Isotopes: Since the number of neutrons changes, the mass of the isotopes is different. Count Those Neutrons It shows the mass number, atomic number, and symbol for the element. Isotopic Notation X A Z Isotopic Notation Example: Be 9 9 protons and neutrons 9 4 4 4 protons Therefore, there must be 5 neutrons. 18 40 22 58 Question
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 4b
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The Electron Structure of the Atom The quantum model emphasizes the wave nature of electrons. The Quantum Model Quantum numbers are solutions to the wave equations of electrons. Scientists use a set of 4 quantum numbers to determine an electron?s location around an atom. Quantum Numbers Electrons exist in principal energy levels that correspond to Bohr?s orbits: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ? Principal energy levels are divided into 4 types of sublevels: s, p, d, and f. Where are the Electrons? The sublevels contain orbitals. Each orbital can hold up to two electrons. Where are the Electrons? Identifies the principal energy level Correlates to Bohr?s orbits n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 for the ground state e?. The total number of e? in a level is 2n2. Principal Quantum Number (n) Level Total # e? 1
Bob Jones PPT Notes -- Chapter 4a
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The Development of Atomic Models: A Historical Perspective 1 Model of an Atom An IDEA of what it looks like (a working representation) 2 Atomic Models Democritus? Idea An object CANNOT be divided indefinitely. There is a smallest particle. atom: (Gk. atomos?indivisible) 3 Democritus ? Chemistry textbook p. 73 (BJU Press) Atomic Models There is a basic unit of matter?the atom. Chemists found this out by looking at the mass ratio of substances. But the atom is NOT indivisible. Democritus? Idea was CORRECT! 4 Democritus ? Chemistry textbook p. 73 (BJU Press) Continuous: Matter can be subdivided forever. Particulate: A smallest particle exists. 2 Theories Atomic Models 9 grams of H2O: 8 grams of oxygen 1 gram of hydrogen Ratio is 8:1 Mass Ratio 90 grams of H2O:
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