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Economics Flashcards

2416242972	Investment	refers to the use of resources by businesses, individuals, or government to increase productive capacity by developing new technology, obtaining new capital resources, or improving the skills of the work force.	0
2416301336	Productivity	is defined as the quantity of goods and services produced by an individual, a company, a sector of the economy, or an economy in a given amount of time.	1
2416319090	Inflation	may be defined as a rise in the general level of prices in an economy.	2
2416490334	Profit	The difference between the total revenue and the total cost of a business.	3
2416498826	Profit motive	A person's motivation to make a profit, and to earn money as an entrepreneur.	4
2416538301	Gross Domestic Product (GDP)	The most inclusive measure of an economy's output. It is defined as the market value of the total output of final goods and services produced in one year.	5
2416554452	Opportunity costs	the most important alternative that is given up as a result of a specific economic decision.	6
2416888945	Economic growth	When the economy experiences an increase in the actual amount of goods and services produced in a given time,	7
2417450054	Production	refers to the activity of combing resources to make goods and services.	8
2417476452	Resource	anything used to produce goods and services	9
2417848223	Entrepreneurship	the risk-taking that occurs when a person starts a new business.	10
2417921964	Business cycle	the continuous sequence of ups and downs in the economy	11
2417925176	Recession	decline in business activity.	12
2417930201	Depression	recession that continues for too long.	13
2417949587	Expansion	economic growth.	14
2418026552	Boom	Economic expansion in the business cycle	15
2418037940	Bust	Economic recession in the business cycle	16
2460013592	Land	all natural resources: including land, water, air, and wildlife.	17
2460024588	Capital	the money, buildings, machinery, and equipment used to produce goods and services.	18

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Introduction to Economics 2015-16 Flashcards

Introduction to Economics 2014-2015

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465468495	Need	Something like air, food, or shelter that is necessary for survival	0
465468496	Want	An item that we desire but that is not essential to survival	1
465471535	Economics	The study of how people seek to satisfy their needs and wants by making choices	2
465471536	Goods	Physical objects such as clothes or shoes	3
465477890	Services	Actions or activities that one person performs for another	4
465477891	Scarcity	Limited quantities of resources to meet unlimited wants	5
465477892	Shortage	A situation in which a good or service is unavailable	6
465477893	Factors of production	Land, labor, and capital; the three groups of resources that are used to make all goods and services	7
465477894	Land	Natural resources that are used to make goods and services	8
465501033	Labor	The effort that people devote to a task for which they are paid	9
465501034	Capital	Any human-made resource (money, tools, machines, vehicles) that is used to create other goods and services	10
465501035	Physical capital	All human-made goods that are used to produce other goods and services; tools, machines, and building	11
465501036	Human capital	The skills and knowledge gained by workers through education and experience	12
465501037	Entrepreneur	Ambitious individual who combines land, labor, and capital to create and market new goods and services	13
465501038	Trade-off	An alternative choice that we sacrifice when we make a decision	14
465501039	Guns or butter	A phrase that refers to the trade-offs that nations face when choosing whether to produce more or less military goods or consumer goods	15
465501040	Opportunity cost	The most desirable alternative given up as the result of a decision	16
465510688	Thinking at the margin	Deciding whether to act, create, or use one additional unit of some resource	17
465510689	Production possibilities curve	A graph that shows the combinations of goods and services that can be produced and the combinations that cannot	18
465510690	Production possibilities frontier	The line on a production possibilities graph that shows the maximum possible output	19
465510691	Efficiency	Using materials & resources in such a way as to maximize the production of goods and services	20
465510692	Underutilization	Using fewer resources than an economy is capable of using	21
465517679	Cost	To an economist, the alternative that is given up because of a decision you make	22
465517680	Law of increasing costs	Economic law that states that as we shift factors of production from making one good or service to another, the cost of producing the second item increases	23
1758836645	Incentive	A reward that encourages an action or a penalty that discourages an action	24
1758840547	Microeconomics	The study of the choices that individuals and businesses make, the way these choices interact in markets, and the influence of governments	25
1758840548	Macroeconomics	The study of the performance of the national economy and the global economy	26
1835347185	Margin	When a choice is changed by a small amount or by a little at a time, the choice is made at the margin.	27
1835409038	Marginal Benefit	The benefit that arises from an increase in an activity.	28
1835409039	Marginal Cost	The opportunity cost of producing one unit of a good or service. It is the best alternative forgone. It is calculated as the increase in total cost divided by the increase in output.	29
1835409040	Economic Model	A description of some aspect of the economic world that includes only those features of the world that are needed for the purpose at hand.	30
1835409041	Economic Theory	A generalization that summarizes what we think we understand about the economic choices that people make and the performance of industries and entire economies.	31
1835409042	Ceteris paribus	A Latin term that means "other things being equal" or if all other relevant things remain the same."	32

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Psychology: Themes and Variations Ch. 1 Flashcards

Chapter 1 - The Evolution of Psychology - Glossary

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1783742827	Applied psychology	he branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems.	0
1783742828	Behavior	Any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism.	1
1783742829	Behaviorism	A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.	2
1783742830	Clinical psychology	he branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	3
1783742831	Critical thinking	The use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desired outcome.	4
1783742832	Culture	The widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations.	5
1783742833	Empiricism	The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation.	6
1783742834	Evolutionary psychology	Theoretical perspective that examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations.	7
1783742835	Functionalism	A school of psychology based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.	8
1783742836	Humanism	A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.	9
1783742837	Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology	The branch of psychology concerned with human behavior in the work environment.	10
1783742838	Introspection	Careful, systematic observation of one's own conscious experience.	11
1783742839	Natural selection	Principle stating that heritable characteristics that provide a survival reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time.	12
1783742840	Organizational psychology	Area of psychology concerned with how employees are integrated into the work environment. both emotionally and socially.	13
1783742841	Positive psychology	An approach to psychology that uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence.	14
1783742842	Psychiatry	A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	15
1783742843	Psychoanalytic theory	A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.	16
1783742844	Psychology	The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.	17
1783742845	Structuralism	A school of psychology based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related.	18
1783742846	Testwiseness	The ability to use the characteristics and format of a cognitive test to maximize one's score.	19
1783742847	Theory	A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.	20
1783742848	Unconscious	According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.	21

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Psychology: Themes and Variations Chapter 4 Vocab Flashcards

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception (66 terms)
pages 118-171;
Transcribed by alexwyllie

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1006676725	Sensation	The stimulation of sense organs.	0
1006676726	Perception	The selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input.	1
1006676727	Psychophysics	The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.	2
1006676728	Absolute threshold	The minimum stimulus intensity that an organism can detect.	3
1006676729	Just noticeable difference (JND)	The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect.	4
1006676730	Weber's law	The size of a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus.	5
1006676731	Signal detection theory	The detection of stimuli involves decision processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity.	6
1006676732	Subliminal perception	The registration of sensory input without conscious awareness.	7
1006676733	Sensory adaptation	A gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation.	8
1006676734	Lens	The transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina.	9
1006676735	Nearsightedness	Close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry.	10
1006676736	Farsightedness	Distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry.	11
1006676737	Pupil	The opening in the center of the iris that permits light to pass into the rear chamber of the eye.	12
1006676738	Retina	The neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain.	13
1006676739	Optic disk	A hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers exit the eye.	14
1006676740	Cones	Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision.	15
1006676741	Fovea	A tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot.	16
1006676742	Rods	Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.	17
1006676743	Dark adaption	The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.	18
1006676744	Light adaption	The process whereby the eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination.	19
1006676745	Receptive field of a visual cell	The retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell.	20
1006676746	Lateral antagonism	When neural activity in a cell opposes activity in surrounding cells.	21
1006676747	Optic chiasm	The point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of the eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain.	22
1006676748	Parallel processing	Simultaneously extracting different kinds of information from the same input.	23
1006676749	Feature detectors	Neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli.	24
1006676750	Subtractive color mixing	Removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light than was originally there.	25
1006676751	Additive color mixing	Superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture than exists in any one light by itself.	26
1006676752	Trichromatic theory	The human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths.	27
1006676753	Color blindness	A variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors.	28
1006676754	Complementary colors	Pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together.	29
1006676755	Afterimage	A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.	30
1006676756	Opponent process theory	Color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors.	31
1006676757	Reversible figure	A drawing that is comparable with two interpretations that can shift back and forth.	32
1006676758	Perceptual set	A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way.	33
1006676759	Inattentional blindness	The failure to see visible objects or events because one's attention is focused elsewhere.	34
1006676760	Feature analysis	The process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form.	35
1006676761	Bottom-up processing	A progression from individual elements to the whole.	36
1006676762	Top-down processing	A progression from the whole to the elements.	37
1006676763	Subjective contours	The perception of contours where none actually exist.	38
1006676764	Phi phenomenon	The illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.	39
1006676765	Distal stimuli	Stimuli that lie in the distance (that is, in the world outside the body).	40
1006676766	Proximal stimuli	The stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors.	41
1006676767	Perceptual hypothesis	An inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed.	42
1006676768	Depth perception	Interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are.	43
1006676769	Binocular depth cues	Clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes.	44
1006676770	Retinal Disparity	Objects within 25 feet project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so each eye sees a slightly different view of the object.	45
1006676771	Convergence	Sensing the eyes converging toward each other as they focus on closer objects.	46
1006676772	Monocular depth cues	Clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone.	47
1006676773	Motion parallax	Images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates.	48
1006676774	Pictorial depth cues	Clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture.	49
1006676775	Perceptual constancy	A tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input.	50
1006676776	Visual illusion	An apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality.	51
1006676777	Impossible figures	Objects that can be represented in two-dimensional pictures but cannot exist in three-dimensional space.	52
1006676778	Cochlea	A fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing.	53
1006676779	Basilar membrane	Runs the entire length of the spiraled cochlea and holds the auditory receptors.	54
1006676780	Place theory	Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different potions, or places, along the basilar membrane.	55
1006676781	Frequency theory	The perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates.	56
1006676782	Volley principle	Groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.	57
1006676783	Auditory localization	Locating the source of a sound in space.	58
1006676784	Gustatory system	The sensory system for taste.	59
1006676785	Olfactory system	The sensory system for smell.	60
1006676786	Gate-control theory	Incoming pain sensations must pass through a gate in the spinal cord that can be closed, thus blocking ascending pain signals.	61
1006676787	Kinesthetic system	Monitors the position of the various parts of the body.	62
1006676788	Vestibular system	Responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your body's location in space.	63
1006676789	Door-in-the-face technique	Making a large request that is likely to be turned down as a way to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later.	64
1006676790	Comparitors	People, objects, events, and other standards used as a baseline for comparison in making judgements.	65

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Combo with "Psychology Themes and Variation: Chapter 1 Practice Test" and 3 others Flashcards

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1240423089	For Which of the following is Wilhelm Wendt primarily known?	The establishment of the first formal laboratory for research in psychology.	0
1240423090	Which of the following approaches might William James criticize for examining a movie frame by frame instead of seeing the motion in the motion picture?	Structuralism	1
1240423091	Fred, a tennis coach, insists that he can make any reasonably healthy individual into an internationally competitive tennis player. Fred is echoing the thoughts of:	John B. Watson	2
1240423092	Which of the following is a statement with which skinners followers would agree?	Freewill is an illusion	3
1240423093	Which of the following approaches has the most optimistic view of human nature?	Humanism	4
1240423094	Which of the following historical events created a demand for clinicians that was far greater than the supply?	World war 2	5
1240423095	__________ psychology examines behavioral processes in terms of the adaptive value for a species over the course of generations.	Evolutionary psychology	6
1240423096	The study of the Endocrine System and genetic mechanisms would most likely be undertaken by a _________	Physiologic psychology	7
1240423097	A multifactorial causation approach to behavior suggests that...	Most behavior is governed by a complex network of inter related factors.	8
1240423098	Psychology's answer to the question of whether we are born or made tends to be that...	We are born and made	9
1240423099	In regards to changing answers on multiple choice tests, research indicates that __________ changes to be more common than other types of changes.	Wrong to right	10
1240423100	Critical thinking skills;	Need to be deliberately taught because they often do not developed by themselves with standard content instruction.	11
1240423101	1871-1939 First to receive Ph.D. Wrote book: the animal mind. Studied under James McKeen Cantrell Columbia University	Margaret Floy Washburn	12
1240423102	1886-1939 Worked on adolescent development. Studied about women and menstrual cycles. Debunked skepticism sexist inquiries.	Leta Stetter Hollingsworth	13
1240423103	1863-1930 Studied under William James Invented technique to study memory Went to Harvard University but no degree	Mary Whiton Calkins	14
1240423104	Neurons	Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.	15
1240423105	Soma	The cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.	16
1240423106	Dendrites	The parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.	17
1240423107	Axon	A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands.	18
1240423108	Myelin sheath	Insulating material that encases some axons.	19
1240423109	Terminal buttons	Small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.	20
1240423110	Synapse	A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.	21
1240423111	Resting potential	A neuron's stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive.	22
1240423112	Action potential	A brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon.	23
1240423113	Absolute refractory period	The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.	24
1240423114	Synaptic cleft	A microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.	25
1240423115	Neurotransmitters	Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another.	26
1240423116	Postsynaptic potential (PSP)	A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane.	27
1240423117	Excitatory PSP	A positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.	28
1240423118	Inhibitory PSP	A negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.	29
1240423119	Reuptake	A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.	30
1240423120	Agonist	A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.	31
1240423121	Antagonist	A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter.	32
1240423122	Endorphins	Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects.	33
1240423123	Peripheral nervous system	All the nerves that lie outside the brain and the spinal cord.	34
1240423124	Nerves	Bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system.	35
1240423125	Somatic nervous system	Nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.	36
1240423126	Afferent nerve fibers	Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.	37
1240423127	Efferent nerve fibers	Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.	38
1240423128	Autonomic nervous system (ANS)	Nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.	39
1240423129	Sympathetic division	The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies.	40
1240423130	Parasympathetic division	The branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources.	41
1240423131	Central nervous system (CNS)	The brain and the spinal cord.	42
1240423132	Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)	Nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it.	43
1240423133	Electroencephalograph (EEG)	A device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp.	44
1240423134	Lesioning	Destroying a part of the brain.	45
1240423135	Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)	Sending a weak electrical current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.	46
1240423136	Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)	A new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.	47
1240423137	Hindbrain	The cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons.	48
1240423138	Midbrain	The segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain.	49
1240423139	Forebrain	The largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.	50
1240423140	Thalamus	A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.	51
1240423141	Hypothalamus	A structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs.	52
1240423142	Limbic system	A loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas.	53
1240423143	Cerebral cortex	The convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum.	54
1240423144	Cerebral hemispheres	The right and left halves of the cerebrum.	55
1240423145	Corpus callosum	The structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.	56
1240423146	Split-brain surgery	The bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.	57
1240423147	Perceptual asymmetries	left-right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing.	58
1240423148	Endocrine system	Glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.	59
1240423149	Hormones	The chemical substances released by the endocrine glands.	60
1240423150	Pituitary gland	A gland that releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands.	61
1240423151	Behavioral genetics	An interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioral traits.	62
1240423152	Chromosones	Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information.	63
1240423153	Zygote	A single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg.	64
1240423154	Genes	DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.	65
1240423155	Homozygous condition	The two genes in a specific pair are the same.	66
1240423156	Heterozygous condition	The two genes in a specific pair are different.	67
1240423157	Dominant gene	The gene that is expressed when paired genes are different.	68
1240423158	Recessive gene	The gene that is masked when paired genes are different.	69
1240423159	Genotype	A person's genetic makeup.	70
1240423160	Phenotype	The ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.	71
1240423161	Polygenic traits	Characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes.	72
1240423162	Family studies	Studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.	73
1240423163	Twin studies	Studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.	74
1240423164	Identical (monozygotic) twins	Twins that emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons.	75
1240423165	Fraternal (dizygotic) twins	Twins that result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes.	76
1240423166	Adoption studies	Studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological parents and their adoptive parents.	77
1240423167	Genetic mapping	The process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes.	78
1240423168	Fitness	The reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.	79
1240423169	Natural selection	Heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time.	80
1240423170	Adaption	An inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged.	81
1240423171	Inclusive fitness	The sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.	82
1240423172	Critical period	A limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences.	83
1240423173	Structuralism	A school of psychology based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related.	84
1240423174	Introspection	Careful, systematic observation of one's own conscious experience.	85
1240423175	Functionalism	A school of psychology based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.	86
1240423176	Natural selection	Principle stating that heritable characteristics that provide a survival reproductive advantage are more likely than alternate characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time.	87
1240423177	Unconscious	According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of unconscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.	88
1240423178	Psychoanalytic theory	A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.	89
1240423179	Behaviorism	A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.	90
1240423181	Behavior	Any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism.	91
1240423183	Humanism	A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.	92
1240423184	Applied Psychology	The Branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems.	93
1240423186	Clinical psychology	The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	94
1240423188	Cognition	The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.	95
1240423191	Ethnocentrism	The tendency to view one's own group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways.	96
1240423192	Evolutionary psychology	Theoretical perspective that examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations.	97
1240423194	Positive psychology	Approach to psychology that uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence.	98
1240423196	Psychology	The science that studies behavior and the psychological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.	99
1240423198	Psychiatry	A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	100
1240423201	Empiricism	The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation.	101
1240423203	Theory	A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.	102
1240423205	Culture	The widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and any other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations.	103
1240423207	SQ3R	A study system designed to promote effective reading by means of five steps: survey, question, read, recite, review.	104
1240423209	Critical thinking	The use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desired outcome.	105
1240423211	Hypothesis	A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.	106
1240423213	Variables	Any measurable conditions, events, characters, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.	107
1240423215	Theory	A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.	108
1240423217	Operational definition	A definition that describes the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.	109
1240423218	Participants	The persons or animals whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study.	110
1240423220	Subjects	The persons or animals whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study.	111
1240423222	Data collection techniques	Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.	112
1240423224	Journal	A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.	113
1240423226	Research methods	Differing approaches to the manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies.	114
1240423228	Experiment	A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.	115
1240423230	Independent variable	In an experiment, a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.	116
1240423232	Dependent variable	In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.	117
1240423234	Experimental group	The subjects in a study who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.	118
1240423236	Control group	Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.	119
1240423237	Extraneous variables	Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.	120
1240423238	Confounding of variables	A condition that exists whenever two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their independent effects.	121
1240423240	Random assignment	The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition.	122
1240423242	Case study	An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.	123
1240423243	Survey	A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of subjects' behavior.	124
1240423244	Statistics	The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data.	125
1240423245	Descriptive statistics	Statistics that are used to organize and summarize data.	126
1240423246	Median	The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores.	127
1240423247	Mean	The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution.	128
1240423248	Mode	The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution.	129
1240423249	Variability	The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean.	130
1240423250	Standard deviation	An index in the amount of variability in a set of data.	131
1240423251	Correlation	The extent to which two variables are related to each other.	132
1240423252	Correlation coefficient	A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.	133
1240423253	Inferential statistics.	Statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.	134
1240423254	Statistical significance	The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low.	135
1240423255	Replication	The repetition of a study to see if the earlier results were duplicated.	136
1240423256	Sample	The collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.	137
1240423257	Population	The larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn and that researchers want to generalize about.	138
1240423258	Sampling bias	A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.	139
1240423259	Placebo effects	The fact that subjects' expectations can lead them to experience changes even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.	140
1240423260	Social desirability bias	A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.	141
1240423261	Response set	A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.	142
1240423262	Experimenter bias	A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.	143
1240423263	Double-blind procedure	A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.	144
1240423264	Anecdotal evidence	Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.	145

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Psychology: Themes and Variations Chapters 1-4 Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images

57045962	Wilhelm Wundt	Established the first formal laboratory for research	0
643292376	Sigmund Freud	Emphasized the subconscious, developed Psychoanalytic theory	1
175897998	John B. Watson	Founded behaviorism, believed that environment was the most important key to success	2
160119085	Cognition	mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge	3
202331654	Physiology	Biological basis of behavior	4
42767411	1st Three themes of Psychology	Psychology is empirical, theoretically diverse, evolves in a sociohistorical context.	5
647598207	Last Four Themes of Psychology	Behavior is determined by multiple causes, behavior is shaped by cultural heritage, heredity and environment jointly influence behavior, people's experience of the world is highly subjective.	6
895448695	Hypothesis	prediction about the relationship between two variables	7
630813190	Theory	explains data	8
340189451	Experimental Research	Manipulating one variable to see how it affects another variable	9
434155287	Descriptive/Correlational Research methods	Study the relationship between two variables	10
868095760	Independent Variable	Condition Varied by experimenter	11
695164080	Dependent Variable	Variable that is affected by manipulation(What is being measured)	12
443089711	Artificial environment, ethical issues	Disadvantages of the experimental method	13
181996052	Naturalistic observation, survey, case studies	Types of Correlational method research	14
335203721	Sampling Bias	when your sample doesn't look like your population	15
554320311	Double blind solution	Solution to experimenter bias	16
706517143	Soma	cell body(nucleus)	17
854002995	dendrites	receive info from other nuerons	18
412979602	axon	sends info from nuerons	19
144695128	Terminal buttons	release chemicals	20
867713514	synapse	gaps between nuerons	21
23458477	Glia	provide support & insulation for rain, make myelin for myelin sheath, gets rid of toxins	22
434099445	Action Potentional	shift in electrical charge that travels on the axon	23
128084315	Neurotransmitters	binds at receptor sites, respond to specific transmitters	24
419259909	PSP(Postsynaptic Potential)	voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane	25
601084899	Acetylcholine	controls movement, attention, memory (alzheimers)	26
203622310	Serotonin	sleep/wakefulness, depression, eating	27
212449281	Norepinephrine	mood, arousal	28
453844212	Dopamine	voluntary movement, reward pathway (addiction to things like gambling)	29
955452493	GABA	always inhibitory	30
701626354	Endorphins	pain modulation, stress response, runners high	31
339250797	Hindbrain	Oldest section of the brain, composed of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum	32
267372778	Medulla	part of the brain that controls respiration, cardiac function, monitors toxins in blood	33
344809026	Pons	Part of brain that bridges upper and lower portions, controls facial expressions	34
819344097	Cerebellum	balance and muscle coordination, motor learning(mirror neurons)	35
291450058	Midbrain	section of the brain involved in vision hearing and movement, pain management, composed of many small parts	36
48729470	Reticular Formation	part of the brain that controls mood, arousal, and sleep (releases serotonin to the brain)	37
836465609	Forebrain	Section of the brain that contains the thalmus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex	38
412364576	Thalmus	part of the brain that relays sensory info(not smell)	39
801870298	Hypothalmus	part of the brain that regulates body temperature, 4F's (feeding,fighting,fleeing,&fornicating)	40
1034412229	Hippocampus, Amygdala	Composes the limbic system	41
926613822	Hippocampus	part of brain that controls the formation of new memories, spatial navigation, vulnerable to stress(memory loss)	42
274530941	Amygdala	part of brain that controls the processing of memory and emotions, emotional learning, fear conditioning	43
138750810	Limbic System	pleasure center of the brain	44
39544324	Cerebrum	also called the cerebral cortex or cortex, controls complex mental activities	45
525223120	Occipital lobe	lobe that controls vision	46
933920927	Parietal lobe	lobe that controls somatosensory(touch) aspects	47
200989182	Temporal Lobe	lobe that controls auditory senses	48
318501314	Frontal Lobe	lobe that controls motor system	49
142176378	Prefrontal cortex	executive control system(CEO of the brain) not developed until the mid 20's, planning & personality	50
240403172	Sensation	stimulation of a sense organ	51
682094626	Perception	interpretation of sensory input	52
446408761	Amplitude	perception of brightness	53
446408762	Wavelength	perception of color	54
351633055	Retina	part of the eye that sends messages to the brain	55
85535472	Lens	part of the eye with muscles to help focus	56
58386114	Trichromatic theory	explains types of cones in retina	57
886323677	Opponent Process theory	stimulation of one type of receptor influences the opponent receptor	58
26003964	Binocular cues	depth perception involving one eye	59
657920925	Monocular cues	depth perception involving both eyes	60
188238189	Amplitude	loudness of a sound	61
233618498	Wavelength	pitch of a sound	62
603897248	Purity	timbre of a sound	63
820513398	Left hemisphere	part of brain involved controlling verbal memory, speech, sounds	64
634054358	Right hemisphere	part of brain involved in speech that controls nonverbal memory	65
500261925	10 days	taste buds renew every____	66
876805101	Temporal Lobe	olfactory bulb and cortex route through the___	67

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Psychology: Themes and Variations Units 1-4 Review Flashcards

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology (22 terms)
pages 0-35;
Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology (40 terms)
pages 36-71;
Chapter 16: Social Behavior (42 terms)
pages 632-675;
Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior (69 terms)
pages 72-117;
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception (66 terms)
pages 118-171;
Transcribed by alexwyllie

Terms : Hide Images

1651288909	Structuralism	A school of psychology based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related.	0
1651288910	Introspection	Careful, systematic observation of one's own conscious experience.	1
1651288911	Functionalism	A school of psychology based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.	2
1651288912	Natural selection	Principle stating that heritable characteristics that provide a survival reproductive advantage are more likely than alternate characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time.	3
1651288913	Unconscious	According to Freud, thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of unconscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.	4
1651288914	Psychoanalytic theory	A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.	5
1651288915	Behaviorism	A theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.	6
1651288916	Behavior	Any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism.	7
1651288917	Humanism	A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth.	8
1651288918	Applied Psychology	The Branch of psychology concerned with everyday, practical problems.	9
1651288919	Clinical psychology	The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	10
1651288920	Cognition	The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.	11
1651288921	Ethnocentrism	The tendency to view one's own group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways.	12
1651288922	Evolutionary psychology	Theoretical perspective that examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations.	13
1651288923	Positive psychology	Approach to psychology that uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence.	14
1651288924	Psychology	The science that studies behavior and the psychological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.	15
1651288925	Psychiatry	A branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.	16
1651288926	Empiricism	The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation.	17
1651288927	Theory	A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.	18
1651288928	Culture	The widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and any other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations.	19
1651288929	SQ3R	A study system designed to promote effective reading by means of five steps: survey, question, read, recite, review.	20
1651288930	Critical thinking	The use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desired outcome.	21
1651288931	Hypothesis	A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.	22
1651288932	Variables	Any measurable conditions, events, characters, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.	23
1651288933	Theory	A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.	24
1651288934	Operational definition	A definition that describes the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.	25
1651288935	Participants	The persons or animals whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study.	26
1651288936	Subjects	The persons or animals whose behavior is being systematically observed in a study.	27
1651288937	Data collection techniques	Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.	28
1651288938	Journal	A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.	29
1651288939	Research methods	Differing approaches to the manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies.	30
1651288940	Experiment	A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.	31
1651288941	Independent variable	In an experiment, a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.	32
1651288942	Dependent variable	In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.	33
1651288943	Experimental group	The subjects in a study who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.	34
1651288944	Control group	Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.	35
1651288945	Extraneous variables	Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.	36
1651288946	Confounding of variables	A condition that exists whenever two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their independent effects.	37
1651288947	Random assignment	The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition.	38
1651288948	Case study	An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.	39
1651288949	Survey	A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of subjects' behavior.	40
1651288950	Statistics	The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data.	41
1651288951	Descriptive statistics	Statistics that are used to organize and summarize data.	42
1651288952	Median	The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores.	43
1651288953	Mean	The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution.	44
1651288954	Mode	The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution.	45
1651288955	Variability	The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean.	46
1651288956	Standard deviation	An index in the amount of variability in a set of data.	47
1651288957	Correlation	The extent to which two variables are related to each other.	48
1651288958	Correlation coefficient	A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.	49
1651288959	Inferential statistics.	Statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.	50
1651288960	Statistical significance	The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low.	51
1651288961	Replication	The repetition of a study to see if the earlier results were duplicated.	52
1651288962	Sample	The collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.	53
1651288963	Population	The larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn and that researchers want to generalize about.	54
1651288964	Sampling bias	A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.	55
1651288965	Placebo effects	The fact that subjects' expectations can lead them to experience changes even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.	56
1651288966	Social desirability bias	A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.	57
1651288967	Response set	A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.	58
1651288968	Experimenter bias	A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.	59
1651288969	Double-blind procedure	A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.	60
1651288970	Anecdotal evidence	Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.	61
1651288971	Social Psychology	The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.	62
1651288972	Person perception	The process of forming impressions of others.	63
1651288973	Social schemas	Organized clusters of ideas about categories of social events and people.	64
1651288974	Stereotypes	Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.	65
1651288975	Illusory correlation	When people estimate that they have encountered more confirmations of an association between social traits than they have actually seen.	66
1651288976	Ingroup	A group that one belongs to and identifies with.	67
1651288977	Outgroup	A group that one does not belong to or identify with.	68
1651288978	Attributions	Inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior.	69
1651288979	Internal attributions	Ascribes the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings.	70
1651288980	External attributions	Ascribes the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints.	71
1651288981	Fundamental attribution error	Observers' bias in favor of internal attributions in explaining others' behavior.	72
1651288982	Defensive attribution	A tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way.	73
1651288983	Self-serving bias	The tendency to attribute one's successes to personal factors and one's failures to situational factors.	74
1651288984	Individualism	Putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships.	75
1651288985	Collectivism	Putting group goals ahead of personal goals, and defining one's identity in terms of the groups one belongs to.	76
1651288986	Interpersonal attraction	Positive feelings toward another.	77
1651288987	Matching hypothesis	Males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.	78
1651288988	Reciprocity	Liking those who show that they like you.	79
1651288989	Passionate love	A complete absorption in another that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony and ecstasy of intense emotions.	80
1651288990	Companionate love	A warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one's own.	81
1651288991	Intimacy	Warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship.	82
1651288992	Commitment	An intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise.	83
1651288993	Attitudes	Positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought.	84
1651288994	Source	The person who sends a communication.	85
1651288995	Receiver	The person to whom the message is sent.	86
1651288996	Message	The information transmitted by the source.	87
1651288997	Channel	The medium through which the message is sent.	88
1651288998	Cognitive dissonance	When related cognitions are inconsistent - that is, when they contradict each other.	89
1651288999	Conformity	When people yield to real or imagined social pressure.	90
1651289000	Obediance	A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority.	91
1651289001	Social roles	Widely shared expectations about how people in certain positions are supposed to behave.	92
1651289002	Group	Two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent.	93
1651289003	Bystander effect	People are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone.	94
1651289004	Social loafing	A reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves.	95
1651289005	Group polarization	When group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction.	96
1651289006	Groupthink	When members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision.	97
1651289007	Group cohesiveness	The strength of the liking relationships linking group members to each other and to the group itself.	98
1651289008	Prejudice	A negative attitude held towards members of a group.	99
1651289009	Discrimination	Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group.	100
1651289010	Foot-in-the-door technique	Getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later.	101
1651289011	Reciprocity norm	The rule that we should pay back in kind what we receive from others.	102
1651289012	Lowball technique	Getting someone to commit an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed.	103
1651289013	Neurons	Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.	104
1651289014	Soma	The cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.	105
1651289015	Dendrites	The parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.	106
1651289016	Axon	A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands.	107
1651289017	Myelin sheath	Insulating material that encases some axons.	108
1651289018	Terminal buttons	Small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.	109
1651289019	Synapse	A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.	110
1651289020	Resting potential	A neuron's stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive.	111
1651289021	Action potential	A brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon.	112
1651289022	Absolute refractory period	The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.	113
1651289023	Synaptic cleft	A microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.	114
1651289024	Neurotransmitters	Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another.	115
1651289025	Postsynaptic potential (PSP)	A voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane.	116
1651289026	Excitatory PSP	A positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.	117
1651289027	Inhibitory PSP	A negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials.	118
1651289028	Reuptake	A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.	119
1651289029	Agonist	A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.	120
1651289030	Antagonist	A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter.	121
1651289031	Endorphins	Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects.	122
1651289032	Peripheral nervous system	All the nerves that lie outside the brain and the spinal cord.	123
1651289033	Nerves	Bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system.	124
1651289034	Somatic nervous system	Nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.	125
1651289035	Afferent nerve fibers	Axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.	126
1651289036	Efferent nerve fibers	Axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.	127
1651289037	Autonomic nervous system (ANS)	Nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.	128
1651289038	Sympathetic division	The branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies.	129
1651289039	Parasympathetic division	The branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources.	130
1651289040	Central nervous system (CNS)	The brain and the spinal cord.	131
1651289041	Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)	Nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it.	132
1651289042	Electroencephalograph (EEG)	A device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp.	133
1651289043	Lesioning	Destroying a part of the brain.	134
1651289044	Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)	Sending a weak electrical current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.	135
1651289045	Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)	A new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.	136
1651289046	Hindbrain	The cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons.	137
1651289047	Midbrain	The segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain.	138
1651289048	Forebrain	The largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.	139
1651289049	Thalamus	A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.	140
1651289050	Hypothalamus	A structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs.	141
1651289051	Limbic system	A loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas.	142
1651289052	Cerebral cortex	The convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum.	143
1651289053	Cerebral hemispheres	The right and left halves of the cerebrum.	144
1651289054	Corpus callosum	The structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.	145
1651289055	Split-brain surgery	The bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.	146
1651289056	Perceptual asymmetries	left-right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing.	147
1651289057	Endocrine system	Glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.	148
1651289058	Hormones	The chemical substances released by the endocrine glands.	149
1651289059	Pituitary gland	A gland that releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands.	150
1651289060	Behavioral genetics	An interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioral traits.	151
1651289061	Chromosones	Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information.	152
1651289062	Zygote	A single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg.	153
1651289063	Genes	DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.	154
1651289064	Homozygous condition	The two genes in a specific pair are the same.	155
1651289065	Heterozygous condition	The two genes in a specific pair are different.	156
1651289066	Dominant gene	The gene that is expressed when paired genes are different.	157
1651289067	Recessive gene	The gene that is masked when paired genes are different.	158
1651289068	Genotype	A person's genetic makeup.	159
1651289069	Phenotype	The ways in which a person's genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.	160
1651289070	Polygenic traits	Characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes.	161
1651289071	Family studies	Studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.	162
1651289072	Twin studies	Studies in which researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.	163
1651289073	Identical (monozygotic) twins	Twins that emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons.	164
1651289074	Fraternal (dizygotic) twins	Twins that result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes.	165
1651289075	Adoption studies	Studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological parents and their adoptive parents.	166
1651289076	Genetic mapping	The process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes.	167
1651289077	Fitness	The reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population.	168
1651289078	Natural selection	Heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations and thus come to be "selected" over time.	169
1651289079	Adaption	An inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged.	170
1651289080	Inclusive fitness	The sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.	171
1651289081	Critical period	A limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences.	172
1651289082	Sensation	The stimulation of sense organs.	173
1651289083	Perception	The selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input.	174
1651289084	Psychophysics	The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.	175
1651289085	Absolute threshold	The minimum stimulus intensity that an organism can detect.	176
1651289086	Just noticeable difference (JND)	The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect.	177
1651289087	Weber's law	The size of a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus.	178
1651289088	Signal detection theory	The detection of stimuli involves decision processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity.	179
1651289089	Subliminal perception	The registration of sensory input without conscious awareness.	180
1651289090	Sensory adaptation	A gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation.	181
1651289091	Lens	The transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina.	182
1651289092	Nearsightedness	Close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry.	183
1651289093	Farsightedness	Distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry.	184
1651289094	Pupil	The opening in the center of the iris that permits light to pass into the rear chamber of the eye.	185
1651289095	Retina	The neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain.	186
1651289096	Optic disk	A hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers exit the eye.	187
1651289097	Cones	Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision.	188
1651289098	Fovea	A tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot.	189
1651289099	Rods	Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.	190
1651289100	Dark adaption	The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.	191
1651289101	Light adaption	The process whereby the eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination.	192
1651289102	Receptive field of a visual cell	The retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell.	193
1651289103	Lateral antagonism	When neural activity in a cell opposes activity in surrounding cells.	194
1651289104	Optic chiasm	The point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of the eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain.	195
1651289105	Parallel processing	Simultaneously extracting different kinds of information from the same input.	196
1651289106	Feature detectors	Neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli.	197
1651289107	Subtractive color mixing	Removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light than was originally there.	198
1651289108	Additive color mixing	Superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture than exists in any one light by itself.	199
1651289109	Trichromatic theory	The human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths.	200
1651289110	Color blindness	A variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors.	201
1651289111	Complementary colors	Pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together.	202
1651289112	Afterimage	A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.	203
1651289113	Opponent process theory	Color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors.	204
1651289114	Reversible figure	A drawing that is comparable with two interpretations that can shift back and forth.	205
1651289115	Perceptual set	A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way.	206
1651289116	Inattentional blindness	The failure to see visible objects or events because one's attention is focused elsewhere.	207
1651289117	Feature analysis	The process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form.	208
1651289118	Bottom-up processing	A progression from individual elements to the whole.	209
1651289119	Top-down processing	A progression from the whole to the elements.	210
1651289120	Subjective contours	The perception of contours where none actually exist.	211
1651289121	Phi phenomenon	The illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.	212
1651289122	Distal stimuli	Stimuli that lie in the distance (that is, in the world outside the body).	213
1651289123	Proximal stimuli	The stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors.	214
1651289124	Perceptual hypothesis	An inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed.	215
1651289125	Depth perception	Interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are.	216
1651289126	Binocular depth cues	Clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes.	217
1651289127	Retinal Disparity	Objects within 25 feet project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so each eye sees a slightly different view of the object.	218
1651289128	Convergence	Sensing the eyes converging toward each other as they focus on closer objects.	219
1651289129	Monocular depth cues	Clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone.	220
1651289130	Motion parallax	Images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates.	221
1651289131	Pictorial depth cues	Clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture.	222
1651289132	Perceptual constancy	A tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input.	223
1651289133	Visual illusion	An apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality.	224
1651289134	Impossible figures	Objects that can be represented in two-dimensional pictures but cannot exist in three-dimensional space.	225
1651289135	Cochlea	A fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing.	226
1651289136	Basilar membrane	Runs the entire length of the spiraled cochlea and holds the auditory receptors.	227
1651289137	Place theory	Perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different potions, or places, along the basilar membrane.	228
1651289138	Frequency theory	The perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates.	229
1651289139	Volley principle	Groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.	230
1651289140	Auditory localization	Locating the source of a sound in space.	231
1651289141	Gustatory system	The sensory system for taste.	232
1651289142	Olfactory system	The sensory system for smell.	233
1651289143	Gate-control theory	Incoming pain sensations must pass through a gate in the spinal cord that can be closed, thus blocking ascending pain signals.	234
1651289144	Kinesthetic system	Monitors the position of the various parts of the body.	235
1651289145	Vestibular system	Responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your body's location in space.	236
1651289146	Door-in-the-face technique	Making a large request that is likely to be turned down as a way to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later.	237
1651289147	Comparitors	People, objects, events, and other standards used as a baseline for comparison in making judgements.	238

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Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Flashcards

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949492717	Actin	A globular protein that links into chains forming microfilaments in muscle and other kinds of cells.	0
949492718	Basal body	A eukaryotic cell structure consisting of microtubule triplets to which cilium or flagellum are anchored.	1
949492719	Cell fractionation	Technique which takes cells apart and separates major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another using a centrifuge.	2
949492720	Cell wall	A protective layer external to the plasma membrane in the cells of plants, prokaryotes, fungi and some protists.	3
949492721	Central vacuole	A large membranous sac found within mature plant cells.	4
949492722	Centriole	A structure in the centrosome of an animal cell composed of microtubule triplets. They help organize microtubule assembly.	5
949492723	Centrosome	In animal cells, a region from which microtubules grow. Contains the centrioles.	6
949492724	Chloroplasts	An organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.	7
949492725	Chromatin	The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes.	8
949492726	Chromosomes	A cellular structure that carries genetic material.	9
949492728	Cilia	Short appendages containing microtubules in eukaryotic cells. May be used for locomotion or moving fluid past the cell. They have a back-and-forth motion.	10
949492730	Collagen	A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that form strong fibers. Found extensively in connective tissue and bone.	11
949492732	Contractile vacuoles	A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of certain freshwater protists.	12
949492734	Cortex	The outer region of cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell, lying just under the plasma membrane, and containing multiple microfilaments.	13
949492736	Cytoplasm	The contents of the cell bonded by the cell membrane, but exclusive of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells.	14
949492738	Cytoplasmic streaming	A circular flow of cytoplasm, involving interactions of myosin and actin filaments, that speeds the distribution of materials within cells.	15
949492740	Cytoskelton	A network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that extend throughout the cytoplasm of a cell.	16
949492742	Cytosol	Semifluid jelly-like substance inside cells in which subcellular components are suspended.	17
949492745	Dyneins	A large motor protein whose ATP powered shape changes leads to the bending of cilia and flagella.	18
949492746	Electron microscope	Microscope that passes a focused beam of electrons through or onto the surface of a specimen	19
949492748	Endomembrane system	The collection of membranes inside and surrounding an eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.	20
949492750	Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)	An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded and ribosome-free regions.	21
949492752	Endosymbiont theory	The theory that mitochondria and plastids, including chloroplast, originated as prokaryotic cells engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell. The engulfed cell and its host cell then evolved into a single organism.	22
949492754	Eukaryotic cell	A cell with a membrane enclosed nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles	23
949492756	Extracellular matrix (ECM)	The meshwork surrounding animal cells consisting of proteins and sugars synthesized and secreted by the cell.	24
949492758	Fibronectin	An extracellular glycoprotein secreted by animal cells that helps them attach to the extracellular matrix.	25
949492760	Flagella	A long cellular appendage specialize for locomotion. Its motion is snake-like.	26
949492762	Food vacuoles	A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis of microorganisms or particles.	27
949492764	Golgi apparatus	An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum.	28
949492766	Glycoproteins	A protein with one or more covalently attached carbohydrates.	29
949492768	Granum	A stack of membrane-bounded thylakoids in the chloroplast.	30
949492770	Integrins	In animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein with two subunits that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.	31
949492771	Intermediate filaments	A component of the cytoskeleton that includes filaments intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments.	32
949492772	Light microscope	Microscope that passes visible light through a specimen	33
949492773	Lysosome	A membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of animal cells.	34
949492774	Microfilaments	A cable composed of actin proteins making up part of the cytoskeleton. Acting alone, or with myosin, causes cell contraction.	35
949492775	Microtubules	A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins and makes up part of the cytoskeleton. Found in cilia and flagella.	36
949492776	Middle lamella	In plants, a thin layer of adhesive extracellular material found between the primary walls of adjacent young cells. Composed primarily of pectin.	37
949492777	Mitochondria	An organelle in eukaryotic cells that serves as the site of cellular respiration.	38
949492778	Mitochondrial matrix	The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid cycle.	39
949492779	Motor proteins	A protein that interacts with cytoskeleton elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell.	40
949492780	Myosin	A type of motor protein that associate into filaments that interact with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.	41
949492781	Nuclear envelope	In a eukaryotic cell, the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.	42
949492782	Nuclear lamina	A netlike array of protein filaments that lines the inner surface of the nuclear envelope and helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.	43
949492783	Nucleolus	A specialized region within the nucleus, consisting of chromosomal regions containing ribosomal RNA genes along with ribosomal proteins.	44
949492785	Nucleus	The organelle of a eukaryotic cell that contains the nucleolus and genetic material in the form of chromatin.	45
949492786	Organelles	The membrane-enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells	46
949492788	Peroxisome	An organelle containing enzymes that produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide.	47
949492791	Phagocytosis	A type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances or small organisms are taken up by a cell.	48
949492792	Plasma membrane	The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, regulating the cell's chemical composition.	49
949492794	Plasmodesmata	An open channel through the cell wall that connects the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells, allowing the passage of water, small solutes and some larger molecules.	50
949492796	Plastids	A family of closely related organelles that include chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts. Found in cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes.	51
949492797	Primary cell wall	In plants, a relatively thin and flexible layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a young cell.	52
949492799	Prokayotic cell	A cell lacking a membrane enclosed nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles	53
949492800	Proteoglycans	A large molecule consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached.	54
949492801	Pseudopodia	A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding.	55
949492802	Ribosomes	A complex of rRNA and protein molecules that functions as a site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Consists of a small and a large subunit.	56
949492804	Rough ER	The portion of the endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes attached.	57
949492806	Scanning electron microscope (SEM)	Microscope that passes a focused beam of electrons through a specimen	58
949492807	Secondary cell wall	In plant cells, a strong and durable matrix that is often deposited in several laminated layers around the plasma membrane and provides protection and support.	59
949492809	Smooth ER	The portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.	60
949492811	Stroma	The dense fluid with the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA.	61
949492813	Thylakoid	A flattened, membranous sac inside the chloroplast. Often exist in stacks that are interconnected.	62
949492814	Transmission electron microscope (TEM)	Microscope that passes a focused beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen	63
949492815	Transport vesicles	A small membranous sac in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.	64
949492816	Vacuoles	A membrane-bounded vesicle whose specialized function varies in different kinds of cells.	65
949492817	Vesicles	A membranous sac in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.	66

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AP U.S. Government Ch. 6&9 Test Q&A Flashcards

This is the AP U.S. Government test over ch. 6 & 9 in .

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2199832572	1. The textbook discusses three important agents that can socialize Americans to participate in the political process. What are they?	C. The media, the schools, and the family	0
2199844813	2. To what do political scientists attribute the relatively restrained scope of government activities in the United States compared to most European nations?	A. The predominance of conservative thinking in America	1
2200520843	3. Which value most accurately describes the number of adult Americans who voted in the presidential election of 2012?	D. 1/2 of adult American citizens	2
2200527627	4. What technique is the key to the accuracy of public opinion polls?	C. Random sampling	3
2200536902	5. The role of religion in influencing political ideologyis determined more by _______ than by religious denomination.	E. Religiosity	4
2200555690	6. "Letter from a Birmingham Jail," penned by Martin Luther King Jr., in 1963, is a classic defense of which form of political protest?	A. Civil disobedience	5
2200833314	7. Why is participation in the census so important?	C. Because the information the census collects helps to determine how more than $400 billion dollars of federal funding each year is spent	6
2200844952	8. What is the effect of aging on political participation?	C. Aging increases political participation	7
2200850820	9. How is political participation defined?	B. As all the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue	8
2200861226	10. Of the following forms of political participation, which is more likely than the others to be classified as conventional?	A. Running for office on a third-party ticket	9
2200867679	11. Reapportionment occurs once a decade, after every census. Why?	A. To reallocate seats in the House of Representatives, based on each state's proportion of the population	10
2200881002	12. Which of the following statements about the influence of education on political attitudes and behavior is false?	D. Less-educated citizens are more likely to vote than better-educated citizens	11
2200900090	13. Consider the effects of growing older on political behavior. What aspects of political behavior increase as people age?	E. Political participation and strength of party attachment	12
2200900091	14. What is the "paradox of mass politics," according to Russell Newman?	E. That the American political system works so well despite the public's lack of work knowledge about politics	13
2200919960	15. Which of the following statements about American attitudes toward the scope of government is true, according to the latest research on public opinion?	C. Most Americans see the need to streamline the federal government as appealing	14
2200942196	16. Alice is an 83-year-old resident of Oregon. She voted for Barack Obama in 2008 and again in 2012. Alice hopes that the next U.S. president will be a woman and she plans to be around to vote for her. Given what you know about age in relation to voter turnout, will Alice be likely to vote in 2014, when she will be 85?	C. Alice will be likely to vote in 2014, unless the infirmities of old age make it too hard for her to cast a ballot	15
2231589331	17. You have been following the career of local politician Stan Chessman, who has recently been elected to the U.S. House o Representatives, for a long time. Generally, you approve of Stan's stands on the issues. Recently, however, Stan began publicizing his support for a new aid package for Pakistan. Stan has always impressed you with his vigorous antispending positions against programs not directly benefiting American workers. You are at a loss to explain Stan's decision to endorse this aid package. You wonder if it has something to do with a recent poll about American interests in South Asia, which overwhelmingly described Pakistan as the key to strategic U.S. interests in that region. In this scenario, what are you accusing Stan of?	D. Of being more concerned with following the polls than leading	16
2233069133	18. In a random sample of 1,000 high-school students, 29% indicated that they had read the Declaration of Independence at least once. If the margin of error is calculated to be 4%, which of the following statements is more likely than the others to be true?	C. Ninety-five percent of the time, the percentage of those questioned who have read the Declaration of Independence would likely be between 25 and 35 percent	17
2233069134	19. Where do some critics place the blame for Americans' lack on political knowledge?	C. On Americans themselves, for not remembering much about what they are exposed to through the media	18
2233069135	20. Of the following, which is a form of political participation?	E. Calling your representative to express your opinion about some legislation coming up for a vote	19
2233069136	21. Researchers studying campaigns stress that campaigns have what three effects on voters?	D. Reinforcement, Activation, and Conversion	20
2233069137	22. Some people have called the American electoral process _______________.	B. "The Permanent Campaign"	21
2233069138	23. According to the "America in Perspective" feature box, in which of the following countries is voter turnout lowest?	E. United States	22
2233069139	24. What is the most common reason given for not voting by U.S. citizens who are registered to vote?	C. It's hard to take time off of work or school	23
2233069140	25. The 2008 election was the first time that _________ voted at the same time as whites.	E. African Americans	24
2233069141	26. What do voters find to be the three most important dimensions of a candidate's image?	C. Integrity, Reliability, and Competence	25
2233069142	27. What is the phenomenon that people's beliefs often guide what they pay attention to and how they interpret events?	D. Selective perception	26
2233069143	28. Because states are the key battlegrounds of campaigns, candidates often find themselves ___________.	D. Tailoring their appeals to the particular interests of a state	27
2233069144	29. Of the following, who would be most likely to vote?	C. Someone with a high sense of political efficacy	28
2233069145	30. Which of the following makes it harder to vote by increasing the costs associated with voting?	D. Voter ID laws	29
2233069146	31. Which states tend to have higher voter turnouts?	A. Southern states	30
2233069147	32. Which of the following groups is overrepresented among voters?	B. People who are married	31
2233069148	33. Research on political campaigns suggest that one of the strongest strategies you could use to impact voters is to ________.	C. Rely on the keen interest most citizens have in the election process to show your candidate's true worth	32
2233069149	34. Of the following people, who is most likely to participate in a presidential caucus?	D. A party acitivist	33
2233069150	35. Which of the following is consistent with the mandate theory of elections?	E. Barack Obama's claim that his victory in the 2012 means that the public wants to raise taxes on the wealthy.	34
2233069151	36. Why are people with higher-than-average education more likely to vote?	C. Education helps would-be voters navigate the voter registration process	35
2233069152	37. Why do presidential candidates tend to focus their efforts on battleground states?	D. The winner-take-all system makes battleground states more relevant to a campaign	36
2233069153	38. How does party identification simplify the voting process?	B. It provides a cue as to which candidate a voter is more likely to prefer	37
2233069154	39. Why is it sometimes difficult for citizens to engage in policy voting?	B. Candidates can be intentionally vague about their issue stances.	38
2233069155	40. One of the down sides to the American system of elections and campaigns is that _______________.	C. A person who might be an excellent candidate could be discouraged from running.	39

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Bio Chapter 14: The Orgin of Species Flashcards

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2412689583	speciation	the formation of a new species, which increases biodiversity and occurs when one species splits into two	0
2412693719	reproductive barriers	serve to isolate the gene pools of species and prevent interbreeding	1
2412699154	prezygotic barriers	reproductive barriers that occur before a zygote forms	2
2412704264	postzygotic barriers	reproductive barriers that occur after a zygote forms	3
2412711154	prezygotic barriers	habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation	4
2412721766	postzygotic barriers	reduced hybrid vitality, reduced hybrid fertility, hybrid breakdown	5
2412755258	habitat isolation	different habitats	6
2412756681	temporal isolation	breeding at different times	7
2412757885	behavioral isolation	different courtship rituals	8
2412761848	mechanical isolation	incompatible reproductive parts	9
2412763474	gametic isolation	incompatible gametes	10
2412765925	reduced hybrid vitality	short-lived hybrids	11
2412767479	reduced hybrid fertility	sterile hybrids	12
2412768578	hybrid breakdown	fertile hybrids with sterile offspring	13
2412771173	allopatric speciation	geographic barrier blocks gene flow, so each separate populations evolves to its own environment	14
2412774482	sympatric speciation	a new species arises within the same geographic area as its parent species	15
2412784584	cause reduced gene flow, and lead to sympatric speciation	polyploidy, habitat differentiation, sexual selection	16
2412791714	polyploid	an organism that has more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes as a result of an accident of cell division	17
2412805838	adaptive radiation/ diverging evolution	the evolution of many diverse species from a common ancestor	18
2412807592	hybrid zone	region in which members of different species meet and mate to produce some hybrid offspring	19
2412843938	reinforcement	hybrid offspring are less fit than members of both parent species, so reproductive barriers are reinforced to keep the species separate/from interbreeding	20
2412851713	fusion	reproductive barriers aren't strong, and so much gene flow can occur that speciation reverses, and 2 species become 1	21
2412861285	stability	species remain the same (no speciation or reverse speciation)	22
2412872126	punctuated equilibrium	species change most as they arise from an ancestral species and then change relatively little for the rest of their existence	23
2412889142	gradualism	species evolve gradually	24

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