Chemistry

Chapter 8 ? 2010, Prentice Hall Organic Chemistry, 7th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Reactions of Alkenes Chapter 8 * Bonding in Alkenes Electrons in pi bond are loosely held. The double bond acts as a nucleophile attacking electrophilic species. Carbocations are intermediates in the reactions. These reactions are called electrophilic additions. Chapter 8 Chapter 8 * Electrophilic Addition Step 1: Pi electrons attack the electrophile. Step 2: Nucleophile attacks the carbocation. Chapter 8 Chapter 8 * Types of Additions Chapter 8 Chapter 8 * Addition of HX to Alkenes Step 1 is the protonation of the double bond. The protonation step forms the most stable carbocation possible. In step 2, the nucleophile attacks the carbocation, forming an alkyl halide.

Chapter 11 Reactions of Alcohols ?2010, Prentice Hall Organic Chemistry, 7th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Chapter 11 * Types of Alcohol Reactions Dehydration to alkene Oxidation to aldehyde, ketone Substitution to form alkyl halide Reduction to alkane Esterification Tosylation Williamson synthesis of ether Chapter 11 Chapter 11 * Summary Table Chapter 11 Chapter 11 * Oxidation States Easy for inorganic salts: CrO42- reduced to Cr2O3. KMnO4 reduced to MnO2. Oxidation: Gain of O, O2, or X2; loss of H2. Reduction: Gain of H2 (or H-); loss of O or O2; and loss of X2. The gain or loss of H+, H2O, HX, etc. is neither an oxidation nor a reduction. Chapter 11 Chapter 11 * Oxidation States of Carbons Chapter 11 Chapter 11 *

Chapter 9 ? 2010, Prentice Hall Organic Chemistry, 7th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Alkynes Chapter 9 * Introduction Alkynes contain a triple bond. General formula is CnH2n-2. Two elements of unsaturation for each triple bond. Some reactions resemble the reactions of alkenes, like addition and oxidation. Some reactions are specific to alkynes. Chapter 9 Chapter 9 * Nomenclature: IUPAC Find the longest chain containing the triple bond. Change -ane ending to -yne. Number the chain, starting at the end closest to the triple bond. Give branches or other substituents a number to locate their position. Chapter 9 Chapter 9 * Examples of Nomenclature

Chapter 7 ?2010, Prentice Hall Organic Chemistry, 7th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Structure and Synthesis of Alkenes Chapter 7 * Introduction Alkenes are hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double bonds. Alkenes are also called olefins, meaning ?oil-forming gas?. The functional group of alkenes is the carbon-carbon double bond, which is reactive. Chapter 7 Chapter 7 * Sigma Bonds of Ethylene Chapter 7 Chapter 7 * Orbital Description Sigma bonds around the double-bonded carbon are sp2 hybridized. Angles are approximately 120? and the molecular geometry is trigonal planar. Unhybridized p orbitals with one electron will overlap forming the double bond (pi bond) . Chapter 7 Chapter 7 * Bond Lengths and Angles sp2 hybrid orbitals have more s character than the sp3 hybrid orbitals.

Chapter 2 ? 2010, Prentice Hall Organic Chemistry, 7th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr. Structure and Properties of Organic Molecules Chapter 2 * Wave Properties of Electrons Standing wave vibrates in fixed location. Wave function, ?, is a mathematical description of size, shape, and orientation. Amplitude may be positive or negative. Node: Amplitude is zero. Chapter 2 Chapter 2 * Wave Interactions Linear combination of atomic orbitals: between different atoms is bond formation. on the same atom is hybridization. Conservation of orbitals Waves that are in phase add together. Amplitude increases. Waves that are out of phase cancel out. Chapter 2 Chapter 2 * Sigma Bonding Electron density lies between the nuclei. A bond may be formed by s?s, p?p, s?p, or hybridized orbital overlaps.